•Some people believe Li or rituals are about organizing and structuring social and personal behaviors, and thus seem to conflict with human emotional instinct and free spirit. Then, can we draw the conclusion that Confucius is in line with inhumanity (as suggested by Bertrand Russel on page 54)?
The core concept of Kant's moral philosophy is "freedom". In Kant's view, justice is the right and duty of free will, the free exercise of human will in the state of law can coexist with the freedom of all others, and is the unity of rights and legal system.
2. Why does the traditional Chinese society's economic and political structure need "Ritual"?
(1) Ritual is an unwritten norm in traditional Chinese society, which guides people's thoughts, behaviors and attitudes and has become an important norm in traditional Chinese society.
(2) The ritual is a very important political system, which not only affects the individual behavior of people, but also affects the overall operation of feudal politics.
(3) On the basis of the ritual，Chinese traditional society has formed a distinct hierarchy of family status and aristocracy.
(4) The ritual has brought stability to the traditional Chinese society and ensured the long-term security of the country to a certain extent.
3.Maritime Countries and Continental Countries
One way of classifying the nations of the world is to divide them into continental and maritime countries, characterized by agriculture and animal husbandry as the principal means of production; Maritime countries are characterized by commercial trade as the main mode of production. In addition, the continental country cohesion is strong; Maritime countries tend to be outward-looking and adventurous. Continental countries are conservative; Maritime countries are more receptive to new knowledge.
4. Why did the Hellenistic tradition in Western culture give rise to metaphysics and monotheism?
Hellenistic tradition laid the foundation for later philosophical thought, which influenced the development from ancient philosophy to modern philosophy. The thought methods, problems and theoretical framework of Hellenistic tradition have become an important reference for the exploration and discussion of Western philosophy.
5.Can we draw the conclusion that Confucius is in line with inhumanity (as suggested by Bertrand Russel on page 54)?
No, we cannot conclude that Confucius conforms to Russell's inhumanity based solely on the belief that Li or rituals conflict with human emotional instincts and the spirit of freedom. Confucius did emphasize the importance of Li and social structure, but not at the expense of humanity or free will.
Confucius's Confucianism is determined by the "private" nature of human nature and the "public" nature of the state. On the one hand, it emphasizes family harmony and brotherhood, on the other hand, loyalty to the country and the monarch, and sympathy for the people. At the same time, Confucianism also embodies individual aspirations and guides people to the right path through various cultivation and discipline.
No, we cannot draw the conclusion that Confucius is in line with inhumanity.
Firstly, what is freedom?
The concept of freedom is very complex. In philosophy, freedom is often discussed in the form of social ethics and political rights. In definition, freedom generally represents the ability and right of humans to self govern, act based on their own will, and be responsible for their own actions. In the concept of freedom, there are three crucial connotations: self domination, self will, and behavioral responsibility.
Firstly, one must possess and freely control one's own body and behavior. In other words, I am the ruler and owner of my body, which is an inherent right. For example, a person who is imprisoned has no freedom. Although ancient slaves were not imprisoned, they also had no freedom because slaves did not have control over themselves, and slaves were only appendages to the slave owner. Secondly, one must possess their own will. To be free, first of all, I need to be able to control my own body, because this body belongs to "me" at least. However, the "me" that your body belongs to is actually a spiritual and ideological self. If your thinking and will are not free, then it seems useless for you to control and control the body. So to be free, we also need to be able to freely control and control my thoughts and consciousness. I need to have a clear and rational understanding of my own thoughts and consciousness. Only by achieving freedom of thought can I seem to be truly free. Finally, being responsible for one's own actions is also an important connotation of freedom, or rather a clear boundary of freedom. The existentialist philosopher Sartre said that the greatest lack of freedom in humans is the inability to escape freedom. Free will is innate to humans, but freedom also implies responsibility. So, freedom to do as one pleases is not true freedom, and freedom and responsibility must be one and two sides.
Therefore, from the three aspects of the concept of freedom, Confucius' advocacy of "propriety" does not confine human thought or limit the freedom of life. The "ritual" advocated by Confucius is to express the original emotions at the most appropriate scale, allowing ritual to return to its original state that is directly related to human nature. That is to say, Confucius' "etiquette" was only intended to constrain the part of behavior that exceeds the ability to bear self responsibility when pursuing freedom, limiting people's self-control and self awareness over that part. However, in essence, that part is not part of freedom and will cause trouble for people themselves and further harm society. Therefore, it is necessary to stop it.
On the surface, the phrase 'taking revenge for benevolence' is a relatively conservative and rigid statement, which may conflict with modern people's desire to develop and realize themselves,but in reality, it is not the case. The person you want to conquer will make life lose its original emotions, meaning, and rhythm; And the restoration of ceremony is to make them reappear, thus connecting emotions and rituals, time and name. Confucius emphasized that the "state of propriety" is to maintain social order and establish a good social atmosphere, not to completely make people lose themselves. Not only in the era of Confucius, but also in any era. It is human nature to yearn for freedom, but in a society, there cannot be no rules and regulations, no etiquette and rule of law. These things are only used to regulate people's behavior, not to imprison it. People can still pursue their own freedom, but only in accordance with social rules and regulations.
We cannot draw this conclusion, and such a conclusion is also a misunderstanding of Confucius and Confucianism.
What distinguishes humans from animal existence, as Kant argued, is our rational capacity. Our free spirit and emotional instincts do not mean that we can do everything without principles and boundaries. To act freely is actually to act autonomously and in accordance with the principles we give ourselves. However, in traditional Chinese society, the state takes the family as the unit, and the authority of the father is naturally higher than that of the son, which determines that a country must have corresponding common norms to measure the behavior of individuals. The reason why some people think that rites are in conflict with the spirit of human freedom is simply to misperceive freedom and ignore the different conditions and processes of development in ancient Chinese society and Western tradition. If people who pursue the spirit of freedom are really free, then there is no need to put freedom and Li in opposition.
We cannot draw the conclusion that Confucius is in line with inhumanity only because Li or rituals are about organizing and structuring social and personal behaviors, and thus seem to conflict with human emotional instinct and free spirit. The reasons are as follows.
First, freedom refers to act freely or autonomously, that’s to say, act according to a law one give himself, not according to the physical laws of nature or the laws of cause and effect which include his desire to eat or to drink or to choose something. In this case, organizing and structuring social and personal behaviors doesn’t conflict with freedom.
Second, in traditional Chinese society, the economic and political structure necessitated the importance of "Li" or rituals due to its emphasis on the family state. Unlike the Greeks, who organized around city-states based on common town interests, the Chinese social system centered around the family. This hierarchical structure, inherent in familial relationships, contrasted with the more egalitarian organization of townsmen in a city state. Additionally, the farming nature of China contributed to a resistance towards industrial revolution, as depicted in the Liezi story highlighting a preference for the natural over the artificial. In contrast, maritime countries like England, driven by commerce and exposure to diverse cultures, were more adaptable to change, fostering an environment conducive to the industrial revolution.
Last, the emergence of metaphysics and monotheism in Western culture can be attributed, in part, to the contributions of ancient Greek philosopher Heraclitus. Heraclitus, known for his philosophical ideas around change and the concept of the "Logos," laid the groundwork for metaphysical thought by exploring the nature of reality beyond the physical world. The development of monotheism can also be linked to the Abrahamic religious traditions, such as Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. These monotheistic religions emerged in the context of cultural and historical changes, providing a unified and transcendent deity as a focal point for moral and metaphysical inquiries. Heraclitus's metaphysical musings influenced subsequent philosophical developments, while the rise of monotheistic religions can be traced to historical and cultural shifts, finding expression in the Abrahamic faiths.
Confucius centered around Li or rituals and social order, are not aligned with inhumanity. From a Confucian perspective, Li serves to organize and structure society, fostering harmony and moral development. While some may perceive it as restrictive, Confucius aimed to cultivate virtuous individuals.
1.Kant's idea of justice is based on the concept of freedom, which he defines as the ability to act according to one's own will, without external coercion or interference. The most basic meaning of freedom,in Kant’s opinion,is that it is not restricted or hindered, or that there is no restriction or hindrance. At the individual level, freedom means being able to make choices and decisions independently, free from external restrictions and interference. At the social level, freedom refers to the ability of people to enjoy freedom of speech, belief, and action.
2.In ancient China, Li were the social ordinances and moral norms. As a legal system, it is the embodiment of the social and political system, and is the maintenance of the superstructure and the corresponding etiquette and ceremony in interpersonal communication. As a moral code, it is the standard and requirement for all behaviors of national leaders and nobles. At the same time, Li shape people's personality through a series of rituals and norms. These norms include respect for elders, respect for teachers, modesty and prudence, so that people can continuously improve their own self-cultivation and moral character in daily life, and create a positive personality.
3.The difference between continental countries and maritime countries is mainly due to differences in production methods and culture.
（1）.Continental countries agriculture and animal husbandry as the main mode of production, the idea is relatively conservative, cohesion is very strong. A continental country is also defined as a country with a large land mass, characterized by agriculture and animal husbandry as the main mode of production.
（2）.Maritime countries are more adventurous and have a strong sense of external development,with commercial trade as the main mode of production. Maritime countries take commercial trade as their main mode of production.
4. (1) The finiteness of man is the fundamental premise of the pursuit of a better life. If man cannot achieve a kind of perfection either materially or spiritually, he can only resort to a transcendental existence. Therefore, when the good life in ancient Greek and Roman civilization came out of the myth, it was a metaphysical system. Metaphysics provides the possibility for human beings to go beyond their own finiteness, and also constructs the picture for the pursuit of a better life.
(2) The ancient Greeks believed that the gods were the most perfect embodiment of man, and that God not only had the image of man, but also had the feelings and experiences of man. Myth is a kind of expectation for the most perfect self of mankind. Under the influence of Greek religion, the Romans produced several gods equivalent to the Greek gods, that is, absorbing Greek myths and transforming the gods believed by the Greeks into the gods of the Romans.
Whether it is the heroic principle, scientific reason or religious ethics, all of them, as the highest principle, have pointed out the direction for the people of this era to pursue a better life.
What’s the meaning of Li? Li is the hierarchy, the ceremony, the sincerity and the appropriateness. Li provides a fundamental and widely recognized norm. On the surface, Li is courtesy and etiquette; in depth, Li is the principle of morality and the rules of social order. Only by abiding by these intangible rules can we cultivate a basic sense of self-awareness as a citizen with refraining our desires which safeguard social order and justice.
What’s the meaning of freedom. "Freedom" in Kant's justice philosophy refers to the state where individuals exercise their rights and pursue goals without external interference. Kant argues that freedom is an inherent right of humanity, but it should be constrained by moral principles to ensure harmony between individual and collective freedoms.An act in accordance with natural instincts cannot be called freedom; it is merely the pleasure of having one's instinctive desires fulfilled. Freedom is an inner state that transcends external limitations and restrictions. Freedom does not come from external control or material possession, but from our inner awareness and wisdom. When we are no longer bound by greed, anger and ignorance, we are able to experience true freedom. Freedom is not the pursuit of personal self-interest or the fulfillment of desires, but rather a realm that transcends the self with the goal of benefiting all sentient beings. In this freedom, we are able to rid ourselves of suffering and distress and realize inner peace and tranquility.
So we can’t draw the conclusion that Confucius is in line with inhumanity. The observance of Li is an important means by which people acquire their freedom and an important guarantee of that freedom.
It is important to consider multiple perspectives and interpretations when discussing philosophical theories. While some may argue that Confucius's emphasis on rituals and social order restricts human emotions and free will, it would be an oversimplification to conclude that Confucius is in line with inhumanity.
Confucius placed great emphasis on cultivating virtues, such as benevolence, righteousness, and propriety, as the foundation for a harmonious society. He believed that rituals and ethical behavior were essential in maintaining social order, promoting respectful relationships, and fostering personal development.
Rather than suppressing human emotion and free spirit, Confucius aimed to guide them within moral boundaries, encouraging individuals to develop their full potential while considering the well-being of others. In this sense, rituals and social structures served as a framework to enhance human interactions and relationships, rather than restricting individuality.
It is essential to carefully evaluate different perspectives and engage in thoughtful discussions to have a comprehensive understanding of philosophical ideas rather than making hasty conclusions based on isolated claims.
We can not draw the conclusion that Confucius is in line with inhumanity. And we should consider the following three points.
Firstly, it is about the freedom. Within Kant’s idea of justice, freedom is not about being able to do whatever we want, to have whatever we want. Freedom is the opposite of natural necessity and heterogeneity. To act freely, we need to act autonomously according to our own laws of free will, not according to the laws of nature or cause and effect. Meanwhile, to act freely is to choose the end itself for its own sake and not a means to an end.
Secondly, the political and economic structure of traditional Chinese society needs "Li". And we have to take into account that China is a continental country. At the level of political structure, China's social system determines that the state is family-based, autonomous and hierarchical. So this requires "Li” to maintain this political situation. At the level of economic structure, the Chinese are easily satisfied, so they do not want change and can not conceive of change, and they always seek social stability. And "Li” can maintain social stability. In short, the political and economic structure of traditional Chinese society needs "Li".
Finally, we also need to consider the reason why the Helo tradition in Western culture give birth to metaphysical and monotheistic religions.
1.The gods and heroes in Helo tradition have supernatural power and special attributes, which provide people with the material to explore the existence, reality, essence and other philosophical questions. Through deep thinking and research on gods and heroes, ancient Greek philosophers thought about the nature, meaning and existence of the universe, and developed the concept of metaphysics.
2.Polytheism existed in the religious environment of ancient Greece, and over time some philosophers began to question the rationality of polytheism and its interpretation of morality and the order of the universe. This provided an opportunity for the birth of monotheism. In this process, some philosophers, such as Plato and Aristotle, began to propose the existence of a supreme God beyond nature to answer people's questions about the cause and meaning of the universe. After the emergence of Christianity, monotheism gradually expanded in Western culture.
Therefore, after analysis of these three points, we can not draw the conclusion that Confucius is in line with inhumanity. On the contrary, we should consider the true relationship between "Li" and human emotional instinct and free spirit from various aspects in order to draw a correct conclusion.
It is important to approach this question with nuance and consider the context of Bertrand Russel's statement in his book. Without further information, it is difficult to fully understand his specific arguments and the rationale behind his claim.
However, it is worth noting that Confucius did not promote a complete suppression of human emotions and free spirit. Instead, he advocated for the cultivation of virtues through rituals and ethical behavior to foster social harmony and personal development. Confucius emphasized the importance of emotional balance, ethical conduct, and the pursuit of self-improvement.
While Confucius placed significant importance on rituals and social order, it is not accurate to conclude that he advocated for inhumanity solely based on this aspect of his philosophy. His teachings aimed at creating a balanced and morally upright society, where individuals could thrive and coexist harmoniously.
It is essential to consider multiple perspectives on this topic and delve into more extensive research to fully understand and evaluate the viewpoints presented by both Bertrand Russel and Confucius.
According to Kant, freedom is the opposite of necessity. To act freely is to act according to a law given by oneself and to choose the end itself for its own sake.
And Li is to organize and structure social and personal behaviors.
If there is only freedom, the society will be a mess with no order and rules. We need both freedom and Li, and they should in a balance. It is Li that limits our desires and maintains a peaceful society. Everything has a moderation. Li is just the moderation.
So we can't draw a conclusion that Confucius is in line with inhumanity.
Confucian "Li" is to maintain social order by regulating individual behavior, not to completely restrict freedom or go against human nature. Confucianism emphasizes human ethics and social order. The Confucian view of human freedom holds that human beings have free will and autonomy, and can freely choose their own behavior and lifestyle. In the view of Confucianism, human freedom is a basic right, and everyone should have free thought and behavior. Therefore, Confucianism advocates respect for human freedom and dignity, and opposes any form of suppression and deprivation of human freedom.
However, Confucianism believes that individual freedom must be achieved within the framework of social norms and ethics to maintain social order and harmony. The Confucian concept of freedom is not absolute freedom, but freedom based on moral and social norms. In the view of Confucianism, human freedom should be restricted and constrained by moral and social norms, and only on the basis of following moral and social norms can human freedom be guaranteed and realized. Confucianism emphasizes the relationship between individuals and others and advocates the realization of individual freedom through "Ren". In Confucianism, individuals should not pursue the maximization of their own interests, but should pursue harmonious coexistence with others in order to achieve the common progress of individuals and society.
Confucian philosophy is still relatively mild, a guide to social norms. The Confucian understanding of individual freedom is more a freedom of responsibility and obligation than an unfettered individual act.
In exploring the relationship between Confucianism's "Li" and Kant's concept of freedom, particularly focusing on the ideas about Kant's autonomy, freedom as opposed to necessity, and the role of rational capacity in freedom, we find an intriguing intersection of Eastern and Western philosophical thought.
Confucian "Li" encompasses a set of rituals and ethical norms that guide personal and social behavior. It's a framework for maintaining societal harmony and personal virtue. Kant’s view of freedom, particularly his notion of autonomy, is about self-legislation through rational principles. While at a glance these seem different, both philosophies advocate for a life led by principles beyond mere personal desires or societal impositions.
Confucius emphasized that moral actions should be grounded in an understanding and internalization of virtues. This aligns with Kant’s idea of rational capacity being central to freedom. Confucius may not have explicitly used the term "rationality" as Kant did, but his teachings imply a considered reflection and understanding of one's actions within the "Li" framework.
Kant's emphasis on autonomy as acting according to self-given laws might initially seem to conflict with the Confucian emphasis on adherence to societal rituals. However, both philosophies value the role of personal decision-making in aligning with a higher moral order. In Confucianism, "Li" is not just about following rituals; it’s about choosing to align oneself with these practices in a way that promotes social harmony and personal development.
We can't draw a conclusion that Confucious is in line with inhumanity.
1)We are in a system of the family state while maritime countries are in a system of the city state. This is the reason why the Greeks organized their society around the city state, in contrast with the Chinese social system, which may be called that of the family state because under it the state is conceived of in terms of the family. In a city state the social organization is not automatic, because among the same class of townsmen, there is nc moral reason why one should be more important than, or superior to, another. But in a family state, thesocial organization is automatic and hierarchic because in a family the authority of the father isnaturally superior to that of the son.
2) Chinese people's ideal traits are different from Western people's. This is the view of one who admires the natural and condemns the artificial, and in their primitivity and innocence, they are easily made content. They desire no change nor can they conceive of any change. In China there have been not a few notable inventions or discoveries, but we often findthat these were discouraged rather than encouraged.
Kant's philosophy emphasizes that the pursuit of freedom must be combined with responsibility. It is only on the basis of responsibility that human beings can truly achieve freedom. Responsibility is not only responsible for oneself, but also responsible for others. In Kant's philosophy, the pursuit of freedom and the assumption of responsibility go hand in hand, and together constitute one of the highest values of human existence.
For thousands of years, although the Chinese nation has experienced wars and divisions, it has generally been under the political pattern of "great unification", and the value orientation of "noble harmony" in Confucian ritual and music culture has played an important hidden role in it. The moral tradition of tolerance, courtesy, humility and kindness, and seeking common ground while reserving differences, formed by the Chinese nation over thousands of years, has formed the keynote of the Chinese nation's spirit.
It is wrong to regard Li as the reflection of inhumanity. The rituals that Confucius said are not to unreasonably suppress human nature. The rituals help people restrain their bad desires and make contributions to the whole society and the people around them. Based on the economic and political system of ancient China, in order to maintain the stability of the country, people should abide by the widely accepted rules and regulations, but not completely restrict their freedom. In fact, according to the German philosopher Kant, freedom is not just about seeking after pleasure or satisfaction of desires. Freedom means acting according to one's law in heart. To a certain degree, it seems that there are many similarities between his thoughts and the ideas of Confucius.
No, we can’t conclude that Confucius is in line with inhumanity.
First, Li is not in conflict with emotional instinct and free spirit. Kant defines freedom as the ability to act according to one's own will, without external coercion or interference. In individual respect, freedom means that people can making decisions free from external restrictions and interference. In the social respect, it is the ability of enjoying freedom of speech, belief, and action.
That’s to say, people can’t act recklessly：run the red light, steal and even kill at will, those are not allowed. The same goes for emotional instincts. If a man hurts someone close to us, we, wrapped in anger, instinctively wish that man dead, but when our sanity returns, we will realize that such thoughts is not realistic. Because we know morally and legally we can’t do that.
Second, in ancient traditional society, one of the importance of the existence of Li is to morally and legally regulate people's behavior as I mentioned early. Through Li , people know what is unhealthy instinct and arbitrary freedom, and keep good moral character and behavior.
Third, Li is also a means of serving politics, constraining thoughts for people to live under governors’ intention. It only facilitates governors to better manage people, not violate the majesty of the emperor , and maintain social class stability . Although it fetters the mind to a certain extent, it is not inhuman.
so, we can’t conclude that Confucius is in line with inhumanity.
Kant's view of freedom is mainly manifested as the moral freedom under the practical reason, which advocates that people can legislate for themselves only under the rational self-discipline and moral norms. In Kant's view, freedom is not equal to indulgence, on the contrary, self-discipline is freedom. In his opinion, allowing oneself to eat what you want and do what you want to do can not be called freedom, it is just an act according to the natural instinct.
2.Why does the traditional Chinese society's economic and political structure need "Ritual"?
Political power is the main factor promoting and restricting the social and economic development. In the small-scale peasant economy system characterized by self-sufficiency in ancient China, the family state system was an important part of maintaining its economic structure. The maintenance of the internal structure of the family state system requires a complete and reasonable ideological and moral norms, and "ritual" provides a perfect standard for this.
The ancient Chinese political rights were characterized by "the unity of nature and man" and "the" divine right of monarchy ". The rulers needed a set of ethical norms to unify people's ideas and regulate people's behavior, and" rites " was perfectly adapted to these.
3. Maritime Countries and Continental Countries
Continental countries take agriculture and animal husbandry as the main mode of production, with relatively conservative ideas and strong cohesion.
Marine countries take commercial trade as their main mode of production, which are more adventurous and have a strong sense of external development.
In addition, according to some literature, continental countries are also defined as countries with large land areas, characterized by agriculture and livestock husbandry as the main mode of production, while Marine countries have commercial trade as the main mode of production.
4. Why did the Hellenistic tradition in Western culture give rise to metaphysics and monotheism?
Metaphysics is a category of philosophy, which we generally understand as an isolated, static, one-sided view. Among them, the origin of the world is its core, and the core problem of material and consciousness can be traced back to the ancient Greek period.The birth of metaphysics and monotheism was influenced by the Hiro tradition, and these ideas were also greatly developed in the period of rapid development of religious culture in the Middle Ages.
From Kant’s idea, freedom is not simply the ability to do what one wants or the absence of obstacles. Instead, Kant views freedom as autonomy - the capacity to act according to a law one gives oneself, independent of the dictates of nature or inclination. This notion of freedom is connected to the idea of moral autonomy, where one's actions are guided by moral laws that are self-imposed through rational deliberation.
2.Why did the economic structure of traditional Chinese society require "Li" or rituals?
"Li" helped to maintain social order and harmony, which were essential for stable economic activities. By prescribing specific behaviors, roles, and codes of conduct, "Li" aimed to create a harmonious and predictable social environment, which in turn provided a stable foundation for economic exchanges and trade.
3.Why did the Hero tradition in Western culture give birth to metaphysics and monotheism?
The connection between the hero tradition in Western culture, metaphysics, and monotheism is complex and multifaceted. The hero tradition often involves narratives of individuals who embody extraordinary qualities and virtues, undertaking daring quests or facing formidable challenges. In many cases, these heroes are seen as having a special connection to the divine or possessing divine attributes.
Metaphysics, as a branch of philosophy, explores fundamental questions about the nature of reality, existence, and the divine. In the context of the hero tradition, metaphysical themes are often intertwined with the search for meaning, purpose, and the nature of existence. Heroes are frequently depicted grappling with profound existential questions and engaging in struggles that transcend the mundane.
Monotheism, the belief in a single all-powerful deity, emerged within certain strands of Western culture and religion. Monotheistic religions, such as Judaism, Christianity, and Islam, emphasize the worship of a singular God who embodies ultimate power, wisdom, and moral authority.
The hero tradition, metaphysics, and monotheism intersect through their shared emphasis on divine connections, moral and ethical ideals, and the pursuit of meaning and purpose. These elements have contributed to the development of philosophical and religious thought within Western culture, shaping concepts of heroism, metaphysical inquiry, and monotheistic belief systems.
4.Some people believe Li or rituals are about organizing and structuring social and personal behaviors, and thus seem to conflict with human emotional instinct and free spirit. Then, can we draw the conclusion that Confucius is in line with inhumanity (as suggested by Bertrand Russel on page 54)?
Confucianism, emphasizes the importance of rituals and propriety (Li) in social interactions. However, it's important to note that this emphasis on rituals is not meant to suppress human emotions or free spirit. Instead, Confucius believed that rituals and proper conduct were essential for maintaining harmony and order within society.
Confucius focused on creating a harmonious society through ethical behavior, compassion, and empathy. He advocated for the cultivation of personal moral virtues such as benevolence (ren), righteousness, and integrity. These values are meant to guide individuals in their interactions with others and society as a whole.
While the emphasis on rituals and social structure may seem rigid to some, the underlying goal was to promote a more compassionate and empathetic society. The teachings of Confucius aimed to bring out the best in people and foster a harmonious coexistence.
So, it would be inaccurate to conclude that Confucius advocated for inhumanity. Instead, his teachings were rooted in fostering a sense of humanity, empathy, and ethical conduct within society.
Confucius's thought emphasized the restraint of etiquette and morality, and believed that by learning and following traditional etiquette norms, individual virtue could be cultivated, so as to achieve social and personal harmony. This does not mean that Confucius advocated the complete suppression of individual emotions and freedom, but more emphasis on guiding individual behavior through norms and rituals to conform to moral norms and social order.
In Confucius's philosophy, etiquette was seen as a social norm that helped to establish harmonious relationships between people. By respecting traditional etiquette, individuals are better able to adapt to society, maintain social order, and achieve moral cultivation at the individual level.
However, whether or not to consider Confucius's view of etiquette to be impersonal involves a different understanding of human nature and freedom. It has been argued that too much emphasis on norms and etiquette may limit the free expression and expression of emotions of individuals, and thus be seen as an inhibition of human nature. On the other hand, followers of Confucius may believe that etiquette is a useful social tool that helps to reconcile the relationship between the individual and society for the common good.
In general, Confucius's view of etiquette is seen as a social norm and moral guidance, and views vary from person to person as to whether or not they are considered inhuman. Some may see it as a beneficial form of social organization, while others may see it as a constraint on individual freedom and emotional expression.
We do can’t free from instinct, but we can not blindly obey nature, becoming the slave of instinct and desire. Human beings own national capacity, and it is this capacity that distinguishes us from animals. Therefore, freedom is not that we can do whatever we want, and at the same time, freedom is not that we can do anything without any obstacles. According to kant, freedom is the opposite of necessity, that is to say, freedom is that people can act according to their own will but only be affected by physiological needs.
Why does the economic and political structure of traditional Chinese society require "etiquette"?
The economic and political structure of traditional Chinese society demands "etiquette" from multiple aspects.
Firstly, 'etiquette' is seen as a mechanism for maintaining social order. In ancient China, social hierarchy and identity differences were the core of economic and political structure. The concept of 'etiquette' establishes a set of behavioral norms and communication norms that help maintain social order and avoid conflicts and chaos caused by identity differences.
Secondly, 'etiquette' also played an important role in the economic activities of ancient China. Business activities are usually carried out in certain social relationships, and 'etiquette' specifies how people should treat each other in these relationships. By adhering to 'etiquette', people can establish trust and good relationships, thereby promoting smooth business transactions.
Why did the Hiro tradition in Western culture give birth to metaphysics and monotheism?
The Hiro tradition emphasizes curiosity and thirst for knowledge about unknown things, pursuing knowledge and wisdom. In the Hiro tradition, people not only pay attention to the surface phenomena of things, but also try to understand the essence and meaning behind them. This exploration transcends sensory experience and involves more abstract and profound concepts, thus forming the ideological foundation of metaphysics.
In addition, in ancient Greek philosophy, the importance of language gradually became prominent, and philosophers began to explore the world and truth through language. This focus on language has promoted the development of conceptual analysis and logical reasoning, providing important thinking tools for metaphysics.
As for the emergence of monotheism. Firstly, the Hiro tradition emphasizes the exploration of mystery and supernatural, which provided soil for early monotheistic beliefs. In early Christianity and other monotheistic religions, mysticism and supernatural elements were important components. Secondly, the pursuit of wisdom and truth in the Heroic tradition also provides support for the faith of monotheism.
Based on the above three questions, I believe that we should not consider 'etiquette' as inhumane just because it constrains human instincts in certain situations. Because instincts are only a part of a person, completely obeying them can make us slaves to our instincts. Implementing 'etiquette' is not depriving people of their freedom, because freedom is not living as freely as animals do. Freedom is based on a certain rationality, and 'etiquette' is a part of human rational capacity. Finally, 'etiquette' has a promoting effect on the development of human civilization and is beneficial to humanity rather than anti human.
No, it would not be accurate to conclude that Confucius is in line with inhumanity based on the belief that Li or rituals conflict with human emotional instinct and free spirit. Confucius's teachings emphasized the importance of rituals and social order as a means to cultivate virtuous behavior and harmonious relationships.
Confucius believed that the proper observance of rituals created a framework for individuals to express their moral values and cultivate self-discipline. He saw rituals as a way to instill respect, humility, and appropriate conduct in both social and personal settings. Confucius believed that by adhering to these rituals, individuals could develop moral character and contribute to the well-being of society.
While Confucius emphasized the importance of rituals, he also recognized the need for moral cultivation to go beyond mere external adherence to rules. Confucius emphasized the cultivation of internal virtues such as benevolence, righteousness, and filial piety. He believed that true moral character came from balancing one's inner emotions and desires with the external standards set by rituals.
In this sense, Confucius did not view rituals as restrictive or in opposition to human emotional instincts and free spirit. Instead, he saw them as a means to channel and express these instincts in a harmonious and virtuous manner. Confucius believed that by aligning one's behavior with the rituals and social norms, individuals could lead a more ethical and fulfilling life.
Bertrand Russell's suggestion that Confucius aligned with inhumanity may stem from a misunderstanding of Confucian teachings. Confucius's emphasis on rituals should not be viewed as suppressing human emotions or limiting individual freedom, but rather as a way to guide and shape these aspects in a positive and socially beneficial manner.
if we want to answer this question, we'd better first know about what's called freedom.
the great philosopher, Kant, denies the opinion that freedom is all about choosing freely, like when you're thirsty, you have the chance to choose between different beverages. As a matter of fact, this seemingly free choice is driven by the feeling--thirst. The real freedom lies in the autonomy. This means, you own the initiative to decide when to grab a beverage, not slaved by your feeling.
So, back to our today's topic. Confucianism just gives guidance on how to choose what to do in general situations. It never lectures people when should they reveal specific feelings. So those,who mistakenly think Confucianism inflicting on people's emotion insticts and free spirits, fail to grasp the essence of freedom.
Furthermore, Li is just a means to reach the end goal--govern the country better and land people a stable and prosperous society. At the time of spring and warring state, the whole country was in a mess. Confucius was meant to exercise a set of rituals(Li) to help the society back to the track. Confucius is convinced that, only if the stability had come back when people in different steps of the pyramid perform accordingly. What's more, by spreading so-called moral code, thus internalized by people, they can respect each other in the back of their minds. Finally, a peaceful community will be in horizon.All in all, the rituals are simply a tool to reach the ultimate goal.
From another aspect to refute Russlle's view. If the rituals are really in the way of people's development of emotion instincts and free spirits, chinese people will be the race who worship the monothesim. But this is not the case. On the contrary, western countries are the real ones who are a big fun of monotheism. If we think like Russell, little wonder we'll regard western societies are the true ones whose free spirit are underdeveloped.
What's the “freedom ”?
According to Kant : We are beings capable of acting and choosing freely. And this capacity for reason and freedom isn't the only capacity we have. We also have the capacity for pain and pleasure and so on. Kant admits the utilitarians were half right. The individual person all human beings have a certain dignity that commands our respect. Kant also proposed two different but related concepts of freedom: positive freedom and negative freedom.
Positive freedom refers to the ability of people to choose and act in accordance with their rational goals and values.
Why ancient China need “Li”？
Because of the special farming culture in ancient China, we need enough labor force. “Li” are a good way to fix labor. Children should be filial to their parents and not travel far away. In terms of politics, absolute monarchy requires a strict hierarchy, and rites can also meet this political demand.
Chinese “Li” is to better regulate the social order. With clear rules and institutions, people will not lose their humanity.That is to say, in ancient China even in the modern-day, if you don't follow the “Li” any more , you will be inhumanity. This is a great idea put forward in the special context of ancient China and it fits perfectly with the development of ancient China.
The reasons for the need of "li" in the economic and political structure of traditional Chinese society are mainly as follows:
First of all, Chinese traditional society is a highly differentiated society, with different classes and groups having different roles and responsibilities. As a norm, etiquette can clarify the mutual relationship and code of conduct between various classes and groups, and maintain social order and stability. Secondly, the traditional Chinese society is one that pays attention to order and norms. Rituals and ceremonies are a very important part of traditional Chinese culture, and they are regarded as an important means to maintain social order and norms. Finally, the reason why the economic and political structure of traditional Chinese society needs "rites" is also related to Chinese history and cultural traditions. Traditional Chinese culture emphasizes "rule of rites" and believes that social harmony and stability can be achieved through etiquette and ritual norms.
As for "freedom", "freedom" in traditional Chinese society is different from that in the West. "Freedom" in traditional Chinese society puts more emphasis on individual moral character and social responsibility rather than individual rights and freedoms. This is also one of the reasons why Chinese traditional society needs "rites". In traditional China, an individual's status and role in society were determined by society and family, and individuals did not have much choice and freedom. Therefore, the traditional Chinese emphasis is on the harmonious development of individuals and society within a certain social framework through the observance of etiquette and norms.
In modern society, with the progress of society and the development of science and technology, individual freedom and rights have been more guaranteed. "Freedom" in modern society places more emphasis on individual rights and freedoms, as well as individual self-realization and happiness. Therefore, "etiquette" in traditional Chinese society is fundamentally different from "freedom" in modern society. In modern society, we need to pay more attention to the freedom and rights of individuals, but also pay attention to the maintenance of social order and norms.
So we need to consider this problem “Is Confucius in line with inhumanity” from two aspects.
First of all, etiquette and ritual in Confucianism do emphasize social order and norms, but this does not mean that it represses human emotional instincts and the spirit of freedom. On the contrary, etiquette and ritual in Confucianism aim to cultivate the moral character and social responsibility of the individual, thus enabling the individual to play a proper role in society and achieve personal self-worth and happiness.
In the second place, we cannot find the views related to inhumanity directly from Confucianism. Confucius emphasized moral cultivation and ethical behavior, and advocated such qualities as "kindness", "loyalty" and "modesty". These views are related to human nature, and have a positive role in promoting the growth and development of individuals.
In conclusion, we cannot simply associate etiquette and ritual in Confucian thought with inhumanity. Instead, we should have a deep understanding of the core ideas of Confucianism and apply them in modern society to promote the harmonious development of individuals and society.
No, we cannot draw the conclusion that Confucius is in line with inhumanity.
Firstly, what is freedom ?
According to Kant's idea of Freedom.
Freedom is autonomy.Autonomy is to act freely, and act according to a law l give myself.
And the opposite of autonomy is heteronomy. Heteronomy is to act according to desires I haven't chosen myself.
Secondly, traditional Chinese society requires etiquette.
From the perspective of political structure, China's social system can be called a family state. In a city-state, social organization is not automatic, because among citizens of the same class, there are moral reasons why one person should be more important or superior to another. But in a family state, social organization is automatic and hierarchical, because in the family, the authority of the father is naturally higher than that of the son. This natural hierarchical order perfectly fits the function of etiquette.
From the perspective of economic structure, China is an agricultural country that does not seek change very much and is not good at pursuing change.
Therefore, from the two aspects of the concept of freedom, Confucius' advocacy of "propriety" does not confine human thought or limit the freedom of life.
No, drawing the conclusion that Confucius is in line with inhumanity based solely on the belief that Li or rituals organize and structure behaviors would be an oversimplification.
Firstly，"Freedom" in Kantian philosophy is a pivotal concept, “freedom” holds a central place, and his idea of justice is intricately connected to his conception of freedom. It is not merely the absence of external constraints but is tied to the notion of moral autonomy. In his moral philosophy, particularly outlined in works like the “Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals” and the “Critique of Practical Reason,” Kant argues that true freedom is the ability to act in accordance with moral principles that one gives to oneself.
Secondly, The economic-political structure of traditional Chinese society emphasized social order and hierarchical systems. "Li" played a crucial role in this context, serving not only as a set of rituals and behavioral norms but also as a tool to maintain social order and traditional values. The practice of "Li" helped uphold social hierarchy and power structures, providing individuals with behavioral guidelines to promote the harmonious functioning of society.
Thirdly, the Hellenic tradition refers to a part of ancient Greek culture, and its philosophical and religious ideas profoundly influenced Western culture. The emergence of metaphysics can be traced to contemplation on the universe, existence, and essence. Philosophers from the Hellenic tradition, such as Plato and Aristotle, explored the nature beyond sensory perception, contributing to the development of metaphysics. The rise of monotheism is also linked to the evolution of Western religious perspectives. Monotheistic religions like Judaism, Christianity, and Islam originated in the Middle East, emphasizing the uniqueness of God and moral principles. These religions, shaped under the influence of the Hellenic tradition, developed ideas about the singularity of God and moral values.
All in all, I don't think we can draw the conclusion that Confucius is in line with inhumanity
1.According to Kant, true freedom is considered to be man's free will to act according to his own legislation, which is not bound by the natural law and gets rid of the physical instinct in the sense of moral practice.Man is still perfectly free in the face of all natural necessity, he is free to act without moral law, he knows in his heart what he "ought" to do, and only when he does so is he truly free.
2."Li" is an important part of Chinese culture, which plays an important role in maintaining the social order and administering the country. It played the role of spiritual pillar and spiritual core in Chinese traditional law. They fused, supplemented and permeated with law to maintain the general goal of feudal unification. Rite is regarded as the fundamental law in the traditional feudal legal system of China, and its important content is fixed by the rulers in the form of law, which has become the basic principles and guidelines of legislation, law enforcement and judicature.
3.When philosophy, as a reflection on knowledge, became a form of knowledge in ancient Greece, the resulting philosophy was determined by its mode of thinking's formalized understanding of existence for existence - the goal of seeking objective basic existence independent of man - which led to the deepening study of the form of existence, despite Plato's warning that attention should be paid to the role of ideas. His student, Aristotle, still ascribes existence to form and thus sets philosophy in its formal form, establishing a system of ancient Greek philosophy that has a lasting influence on the course of Western philosophy.
So, we can't draw the conclusion that Confucius is in line with inhumanity.
In the relationship between human being and rites and moral norms, the Confucius state is reversed. Human beings should have their own values, but Confucius and Confucianism reduced human values to ritual and righteous morality. Only by doing things according to ritual and righteousness morality, human beings have human values and become human beings. This actually negates human values. Moreover, the rites and righteousness morality was originally formulated by people and should serve people, but in the Confucius country it became the inevitable law that people must obey unconditionally and became the rope that bound people. It is not difficult to see from this that humanism talks about the liberation of human personality, and people free themselves from the shackles of religious theology and realize human value in their own creative actions. But the person that the Confucianism talks about is the person in the present case of rite and righteousness, this kind of person has lost the essence of person in fact, become a kind of rite and righteousness moral existence completely. In human values, humanitarianism emphasizes the human-centeredness and the supremacy of human beings, while Kong Yu emphasizes the supremacy of rite and righteousness morality. Only when a person acts according to rite and righteousness morality can he be of value. This is the fundamental difference between Confucianism and humanism.
We cannot draw the conclusion that Confucius is in line with inhumanity.
To begin with, according to Kant’s conception of freedom, it is to act autonomously according to a law that you give yourself , instead of doing whatever you want.So organized social and individual behaviors are not in conflict with the free spirit and human emotional instinct. However, free action must take place in an orderly manner within the organization of society.
Secondly, the core content of traditional culture accumulated by thousands of years of Chinese history is "rites", and the politics of ancient China is basically based on "rites". "Rites" is closely related to ancient Chinese political ideas, political behaviors and political systems. The patriarchal system, fealty system, land system and other political systems in ancient China belong to the category of "rites". Although all kinds of ritual systems have gained or lost and changed with the development of society or the replacement of dynasties, they have always changed. "Ritual" has always been the theoretical basis and value standard of various systems in ancient society of our country for thousands of years, and has always been the ideal system pattern pursued by the ideology of feudal dynasties in our country. Therefore, it can be said that our traditional culture and political system are basically a "paradigm" of rites. Due to the characteristics of ancient Chinese economic and political structures, rituals is really needed to maintain social stability and economic development.
Thirdly, the Hellenistic tradition in Western culture spurred contemplation beyond the material world, fostering the development of metaphysics. At the time of the rise of monotheism, the society was in the stage of the disintegration of primitive society, the formation of class society, the contradictions between nobility and commoners in clan society and between slave owners and slaves after entering class society were very sharp. Therefore, the essence of metaphysics and the rise of the monotheism is to maintain the unity of society and to emphasize the universe's order and unity.
Generally speaking, although Li is about organizing and structuring social and personal behaviors, social unity and stability is premise for people to express their emotional instinct and free spirit, without it how could we be free? So Confucius actually is humanity.
The translation of "metaphysics" originated from Japanese scholars, and at its first level of meaning, it is based on Zhu Xi's "The metaphysical is intangible and invisible, and the physical is tangible and visible." The metaphysical is called "Dao," and its object is metaphysics, while the physical is called "Qi," and its object is physics.
In Kant's view, ethical or moral freedom refers to the autonomy or self-determination of the will in following one's inner moral law. He believed that every rational person has an inner moral law or "categorical imperative" engraved in their heart, which requires people to act according to universal principles. As long as people can follow the moral law or "categorical imperative" in their hearts, they are free in a moral sense. Kant believed that the will of free will and the will of obeying the moral law are identical. According to this concept, free will is not something that can freely and unrestrictedly satisfy one's wishes, hobbies, and desires, but it can completely control one's irrational impulses and desires through rationality.
"Li" is a code of conduct used to govern the country, stabilize society, and maintain stable social relationships among the people, thereby ensuring the various interests of future generations. The various codes and systems, political thoughts, and policies of the dynasties in China have a close relationship with "Li" culture. Many rulers often cite the Li Jing, a classic text on rituals and ceremonies, as a guideline and authoritative basis for their actions when governing and implementing policies. Many rulers also often use "Li" as a basis for institutional construction or reform.
The "li" advocated by Confucius primarily means "behavioral norms." The functions of this "li" include:First, its political function, using so-called "li system" and "li governance" to establish various regulations and systems to regulate people's behavior, achieving the role of governing the state.Second, its social function, using so-called "li education" to regulate people's behavior through festivals, birthdays, weddings, funerals, sacrifices, and other social etiquette and customs, achieving the role of changing customs and mores.Third, its role in self-awareness of the mind, as Confucius endowed "li" and "ren" with a soul, hoping that through education, people can reflect on their own lives from external behavioral norms, thereby awakening their souls and becoming a gentleman who aspires to cultivate his moral character."Li" requires every member of society to adhere to established social relationships and confers a certain moral responsibility on each member. If people all adhere to these relationships and fulfill their moral responsibilities, society will be stable. Conversely, if the order is disrupted, society will be unstable. The etiquette in daily life is quite detailed and extensive, but it is precisely this etiquette that, while regulating people's words and deeds, constitutes a broad foundation for a stable social order.
I don't agree with the statement that Li is against humanity. In fact, Confucian rules of etiquette are not meant to bind people, but to guide them. In the eyes of Confucianism, human nature is inherently good, but due to the influence of environmental and personal factors, people will deviate from the right path. Therefore, Confucianism formulated various rules of etiquette to help people maintain good moral quality and behavior habits, so that people can better adapt to society and life. People live in society, and society is organized, and no one can do whatever they want, and there must be limits to their behavior. Modern society limits people's behavior is the law, the ancient society limits people's behavior is the "ritual system". The purpose of modern law to restrict human behavior is to protect human freedom. The "ritual system" limits people's behavior to an unequal hierarchical status system. People have different rights and obligations according to their different status. Therefore, it is not so much the Confucian idea of "ritual" that is incompatible with freedom as it is the abolition of freedom for most of the lower members of society and the guarantee of more freedom for the upper members.
Freedom is not just what you are allowed to do, freedom is your ability to live up to the rules you have set for yourself. Freedom cannot be seen simply as doing whatever you want to do right now; That way you will be enslaved by every whim and passing thought. True freedom means taking control of your entire life, learning to plan, commit, and decide, and taking responsibility for the results of your actions.
"If people are disrespectful, they will not live; if things are disrespectful, they will not live; if a country is disrespectful, it will be restless."
Ceremony is not only the foundation of personal life, but also the policy of national governance. Etiquette and norms are important aspects of maintaining social order and interpersonal relationships. Confucius believed that adhering to various etiquette norms could cultivate people's moral cultivation, make people's behavior conform to moral principles, and thus establish a harmonious and stable society. In today's market economy, "ritual" still has its positive value and positive influence.
No. I believe that Confucius isn't in line with in humanity.
First，in the view of Confucianism, if people are rude, they cannot distinguish themselves from animals, which shows the important role of "Li" in people's lives. "Li" is the product of human rational thinking. The difference between people and animals is that people have thinking, know beauty and ugliness, and so on.
Second, The sociality of human beings determines that human beings need to have a common rule to observe. This "rule" is the "Li." Between countries, between individuals, and with each other, we must respect each other and treat each other with "Li".
Third, "Li" is the code of moral behavior between countries and individuals. As everyone observes "Li", the society is orderly and harmonious development; if this "Li" is destroyed, contradictions, even riots will arise.
您确定给 “
4008987008