1. What is "Freedom"? (on Kant's idea of Justice）
"Freedom" in Kant's justice philosophy refers to the state where individuals exercise their rights and pursue goals without external interference. Kant argues that freedom is an inherent right of humanity, but it should be constrained by moral principles to ensure harmony between individual and collective freedoms.
2. Why does the traditional Chinese society's economic and political structure need "Ritual"?
In traditional Chinese society, "Ritual" is not just a ceremony but a moral guideline sustaining social order. By regulating behavior, "Ritual" encourages individuals to prioritize societal interests, contributing to social harmony. Its role in the economic and political structure lies in establishing a set of relatively fixed social norms and moral standards, aiding in stabilizing governance and societal relations.
3. Maritime Countries and Continental Countries
The distinction between maritime and continental countries is based on geographical and economic factors. Maritime countries, surrounded by seas, often have economies influenced by maritime activities like trade, fishing, and navigation, while continental countries, located inland, focus more on agriculture.
4. Why did the Hellenistic tradition in Western culture give rise to metaphysics and monotheism?
The Hellenistic tradition in Western culture spurred contemplation beyond the material world, fostering the development of metaphysics. This philosophical trend guided individuals beyond sensory experiences to seek higher truths. Simultaneously, the religious beliefs in the Hellenistic tradition laid the foundation for monotheism, concentrating faith in a single deity and emphasizing the universe's order and unity.
No, it would be an oversimplification and a misinterpretation to conclude that Confucius is in line with inhumanity solely based on the criticism of Li or rituals. Confucianism, as propagated by Confucius, is a comprehensive philosophical and ethical system that goes beyond rituals. While rituals play a role in structuring social and personal behaviors, the core of Confucianism emphasizes ethical virtues, moral cultivation, and the development of benevolence (ren) and righteousness (yi).Bertrand Russell's suggestion of inhumanity might stem from a limited view of Confucianism or a specific interpretation of rituals. Confucius advocated for the harmonious coexistence of individuals within a society, emphasizing empathy, compassion, and the well-being of others. His teachings aimed at creating a moral and just society, and not at suppressing human emotional instincts or free spirit.In essence, Confucianism encourages a balanced approach that incorporates both ethical principles and humanistic values, aiming for a harmonious and virtuous society.
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1. What is "Freedom"? (on Kant's idea of Justice） According to Kant, true freedom is the opposite of necessity, it is also considered to mean that man has the free will to act not according to the law of nature or the law of cause and effect, but a law that he gives himself. 2. Why does the traditional Chinese society's economic and political structure need "Ritual"? ①China was a family state, the social organization is automatic and hierarchic because in a family the authority of the father is naturally superior to that of the son. The country is constructed by numerous families, so-called “family and country as one”. Therefore, internal moral standards are needed to maintain social order. ②"Ritual" has the nature of law and has become the main norm for maintaining social order in ancient Chinese society. Originating from sacrificial rites, Li system and etiquette, as the norms followed in sacrificial ceremonies, had the nature of customary law in the clan society and Xia-Shang-Zhou period. After the Xia-Shang-Zhou period, while retaining the nature of customary law, many contents of Li system were transformed into clauses in written laws. In addition to the laws enacted and promulgated by the state, the system of traditional Chinese law concerning litigation, marriage, family, clan, inheritance, identity, and so on, can be found in corresponding rules in Li. ③"Ritual" not only manifests as political systems and legal norms, but also as ethical norms that people generally follow in their daily lives. It guides people’s thinking and consciousness in the form of ethical morality, enabling them to accept the spirit of Li from the heart, follow its requirements, and meet its standards. 3.Maritime Countries and Continental Countries ① Marine countries, Marine countries in a broad sense as long as adjacent to the sea are counted, generally referring to the United Kingdom, the Netherlands, Japan and Japan and the United States, China is also a Marine country. ② continental countries, continental countries are landlocked countries, the territory does not include the sea, France, Germany and Russia are continental countries. 4.Why did the Greek and Roman tradition in Western culture give birth to metaphysics and monotheism? ①Firstly, the emergence of metaphysics can be traced back to the rise of ancient Greek philosophy. Greek philosophers delved deep into the nature of existence and the principles of the universe. Plato’s theory of Forms proposed the existence of an ideal world beyond the material realm, laying the foundation for later metaphysics. Aristotle’s metaphysics, on the other hand, explored the essence and structure of the universe from the perspective of reality and existence. These philosophical ideas from ancient Greece laid the groundwork for the development of metaphysics. ②Secondly, the emergence of monotheistic religions is closely intertwined with the mutual influence between Greek and Roman cultures. In ancient Greece, descriptions of numerous deities were already present in Greek tragedies and epic works. The rise of the Roman Empire absorbed Greek culture and developed Roman mythology based on Greek myths. However, with the passage of time and the diverse religious systems and cultural exchanges in the Greco-Roman world, some people began to reflect and seek the existence of a universal god. This wave of thought led to the rise of monotheistic religions such as Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. They attempted to unify diverse belief systems by worshiping a single God (or Allah) and spread throughout the Roman Empire and its subsequent successors, especially Christianity. ③In conclusion, the birth of metaphysics and monotheism in the Greco-Roman traditions can be attributed to the profound reflections on the nature of existence by ancient Greek philosophers, as well as the influence of the diverse religious systems and cultural exchanges in Greco-Roman culture. These factors prompted people to pursue beliefs in the essence of the transcendent world and a unified deity. 5. Can we draw the conclusion that Confucius is in line with inhumanity (as suggested by Bertrand Russel on page 54)? No, it is not accurate to draw the conclusion that Confucius is in line with inhumanity based on the suggestion made by Bertrand Russell. Confucius was a Chinese philosopher who lived during the 5th century BCE and his teachings focused on ethical conduct, social harmony, and the cultivation of virtue. Confucius emphasized the importance of treating others with respect, virtue, and adherence to moral principles. He advocated for filial piety, loyalty, justice, and benevolence as fundamental values in human relationships. Confucianism promotes concepts such as the golden rule, which encourages individuals to treat others as they would like to be treated themselves. It is worth noting that interpretations of Confucianism may vary, and there have been different perspectives on its applicability and relevance over time. However, characterizing Confucius or his teachings as inhumane is an oversimplified and inaccurate representation of his philosophy. -
1、What is “Freedom”？（on Kant's idea of Justice）
Kant believed that human moral norms and rights and obligations stem from human free will, and moral obligations are a type of right and obligation.Believing that justice is a right and obligation based on free will, a combination of rights and legal systems where people can freely exercise their own will and coexist with the freedom of all others in a legal state."Freedom" is the central idea of Kant's moral philosophy. Kant believed that humans are both "sensory" and "tangible", as well as "conceptual" and "ontological". In the world of experience, people are determined and not free, and their desires and actions are governed by the laws of causality in nature; Human beings are a free, morally active force that can make choices between good and evil, and are free and self determined.
2、Why does the traditional Chinese society‘s economic and political structure need“Ritual”？
Due to Confucianism's reverence for propriety and promotion of the rule of propriety, for over two thousand years, knowledge of books and etiquette has become a fundamental symbol of benevolence and gentlemanly conduct in feudal society. Harmony, frugality, courtesy, and respect have become traditional virtues in China. China is known as the "land of etiquette". Rites have played a positive role in maintaining national unity and stability, stabilizing social order, and restraining individual behavior. But in feudal society, especially in its later stages, ritual also had a side that constrained people's thinking and behavior.
3.Maritime Countries and Continental Countries Maritime Countries: Maritime countries are those that have a significant coastline and rely on the sea for trade, transportation. Continental Countries: Continental countries are those that are geographically dominated by landmasses and have limited access to the sea. The difference between maritime countries and continental countries is primarily based on their geography, resources, and economic characteristics.
4. Why did the Hellenistic tradition in Western culture give rise to metaphysics and monotheism?
Firstly, the Hiro tradition emphasizes curiosity and the pursuit of knowledge about the unknown Desire, this spirit has driven philosophers to explore metaphysics. They try to understand by thinking about a world beyond experience.The essence and purpose of the world, thus forming metaphysics. Secondly, the Hiro tradition also values language and logical thinking. Philosophers explore the essence and truth of the world through language and logical analysis, which also provides an important way of thinking for the formation of metaphysics.
On the other hand, philosophers in the Heroic tradition gradually realized the chaos and instability of the polytheistic faith. They believe that only one god can create and maintain the order and truth of the universe. Therefore, monotheistic beliefs gradually emerged in the Greek tradition. Philosophers attempt to prove the existence and essence of a god by contemplating the essence and purpose of the universe.
Overall, the spirit of reflection, reversal, and retrospective in the Hiro tradition, as well as the curiosity and pursuit of knowledge about unknown things Desire, as well as the emphasis on language, provided important ideological foundations and cultural backgrounds for the birth of metaphysics and monotheism.
5.Can we draw the conclusion that Confucius is in line with inhumanity (as suggested by Bertrand Russel on page 54)? Firstly, we need to understand the context and background in which Russell criticized Confucius. Russell interpreted and evaluated Confucius in the context of Western culture, which differs from Eastern culture in many aspects. Therefore, we need to conduct a specific analysis of Russell's criticism to see if it is reasonable.
Secondly, Confucius' ideas have many aspects, including benevolence, righteousness, propriety, wisdom, and faith. These ideas are often positive and in line with humanitarian values. Therefore, we cannot simply reject Confucius' ideas just because Russell criticized some of his views.Finally, we need to recognize that every culture, ideology, or value has its advantages and disadvantages. We cannot deny a certain idea or value simply because it has flaws.
On the contrary, we should conduct a comprehensive analysis and evaluation of it, to see which aspects are in line with humanitarianism and which aspects need improvement. Therefore, I believe that we cannot simply conclude that Confucius is inhumane. We need to conduct a comprehensive analysis of Confucius' thoughts to see if they conform to humanitarian values.
At the same time, we also need to recognize any culture or ideology Both or values have their advantages and disadvantages, requiring comprehensive evaluation and improvement
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According to Kant, true freedom is considered to mean that man has the free will to act according to his own legislation without being bound by the law of nature in the sense of moral real money, and that man's reason establishes the inevitable laws of nature in the aspect of objects, but therefore limits his own freedom. In real money, the same reason of man is able not to be bound by the laws of nature, but to act according to its own consistent universal law of free will. 2.Ritual play a crucial role in traditional Chinese law. Rites are the spiritual core of law, and they cannot be separated. Under the same goal of maintaining feudal autocratic rule, they play their respective roles and complement each other. As a symbol of Chinese traditional culture, ritual has been deeply rooted in the spiritual world of Chinese people, and has gained universal recognition. Its status and function even transcend the law and become the supreme existence. "Ritual" is actually a code of conduct generated by the interaction between people, or a social rule. The system itself, which is reached voluntarily and observed voluntarily through the interaction between people, is said to be efficient by institutional economics. Why is that? It's simple: an agreed result is a good result. 3. 1, Marine countries, Marine countries in a broad sense as long as adjacent to the sea are counted, generally referring to the United Kingdom, the Netherlands, Japan and Japan and the United States, China is also a Marine country. 2, continental countries, continental countries are landlocked countries, the territory does not include the sea, France, Germany and Russia are continental countries. 4. From the historical process of metaphysics development, there are actually three kinds of metaphysics: universal ontology, category ontology and meaning ontology. Greek philosophy originated from the search for "the universality of the world" (the original).
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1. What is "Freedom"? (on Kant's idea of Justice） According to Kant, true freedom is considered to mean that man has the free will to act according to his own legislation without being bound by the law of nature in the sense of moral real money, and that man's reason establishes the inevitable laws of nature in the aspect of objects, but therefore limits his own freedom. In real money, the same reason of man is able not to be bound by the laws of nature, but to act according to its own consistent universal law of free will. 2. Why does the traditional Chinese society's economic and political structure need "Ritual"? Ritual play a crucial role in traditional Chinese law. Rites are the spiritual core of law, and they cannot be separated. Under the same goal of maintaining feudal autocratic rule, they play their respective roles and complement each other. As a symbol of Chinese traditional culture, ritual has been deeply rooted in the spiritual world of Chinese people, and has gained universal recognition. Its status and function even transcend the law and become the supreme existence. "Ritual" is actually a code of conduct generated by the interaction between people, or a social rule. The system itself, which is reached voluntarily and observed voluntarily through the interaction between people, is said to be efficient by institutional economics. Why is that? It's simple: an agreed result is a good result. 3.Maritime Countries and Continental Countries 1, Marine countries, Marine countries in a broad sense as long as adjacent to the sea are counted, generally referring to the United Kingdom, the Netherlands, Japan and Japan and the United States, China is also a Marine country. 2, continental countries, continental countries are landlocked countries, the territory does not include the sea, France, Germany and Russia are continental countries. 4. Why did the Hellenistic tradition in Western culture give rise to metaphysics and monotheism? From the historical process of metaphysics development, there are actually three kinds of metaphysics: universal ontology, category ontology and meaning ontology. Greek philosophy originated from the search for "the universality of the world" (the original). 5. Can we draw the conclusion that Confucius is in line with inhumanity (as suggested by Bertrand Russel on page 54)? No, we cannot conclude that Confucius is consistent with inhumanity simply because rites or rituals conflict with human emotional instincts and the spirit of freedom. While Confucius did emphasize the importance of etiquette and social structure, this was not at the expense of humanity or free will. Confucius believed rites were important in promoting social harmony and respect for others, but also emphasized the importance of compassion, empathy, and personal expression. In addition, Russell's evaluation of Confucian inhumanity is narrow and limited. Confucianism and philosophy have evolved over time, and there is no single, unitary interpretation of Confucianism.
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Confucianism, as expounded by Confucius, is a philosophical and ethical system that encompasses a wide range of principles, and the concept of Li (rituals) is a crucial component of this system. While Bertrand Russell suggested on page 54 of his work that Confucius is in line with inhumanity due to his emphasis on rituals, it's important to delve into the nuanced understanding of Confucianism to gain a more comprehensive perspective. Confucius lived during a time of social and political turmoil in ancient China. He sought to restore social order, moral values, and harmony to a society plagued by disunity and moral decay. In this context, Confucius advocated for the importance of rituals as a means to cultivate ethical behavior, respect for tradition, and a harmonious social order. The term Li, often translated as "rituals" or "propriety," carries a multifaceted meaning in Confucian thought. It encompasses various aspects, including social rituals, ceremonies, and proper conduct. Li, in the Confucian context, is not merely a set of empty or rigid rituals; instead, it is a dynamic concept that involves a deep understanding of appropriateness in various situations. One key aspect of Li is its role in organizing and structuring social and personal behaviors. Confucius believed that adherence to rituals could serve as a guide for individuals in their interactions with others, fostering respect, courtesy, and a sense of propriety. In this sense, rituals were seen as a framework for social harmony and order. However, it is crucial to avoid oversimplification and recognize that Confucius did not view rituals as an end in themselves. Rather, they were a means to an end – a way to cultivate moral character. Confucius emphasized the importance of sincerity and inner virtue. The performance of rituals, according to Confucius, should not be a superficial or mechanical exercise but an expression of genuine moral principles. Confucius believed that individuals should approach rituals with a sincere heart and a commitment to moral values. In this way, the external observance of rituals was intimately connected with internal ethical development. Confucius aimed to create a society where individuals, guided by rituals, would naturally exhibit benevolence, righteousness, and other virtuous qualities. Furthermore, Confucius did not advocate blind obedience to tradition or rigid adherence to rituals. He acknowledged the need for flexibility and adaptability, emphasizing that rituals should be adjusted according to changing circumstances while maintaining the underlying moral principles. This flexibility allows for the integration of human emotional instinct and adaptability within the framework of Li. Confucius' teachings were deeply rooted in the ethical cultivation of individuals. He believed that personal moral development, guided by rituals, would contribute to the betterment of society as a whole. Confucius' emphasis on rituals, therefore, was a means to harmonize human relationships, uphold ethical standards, and contribute to the overall well-being of society. In addressing the potential conflict between Li and human emotional instinct, it's essential to note that Confucius did not seek to suppress human emotions or curb personal freedom. Instead, he advocated for a harmonious balance between emotional expression and ethical conduct. The rituals were considered a guide for individuals to express their emotions in socially appropriate ways, fostering a community built on mutual respect and understanding. While Bertrand Russell's characterization of Confucius as in line with inhumanity may arise from a partial understanding of Confucianism, it is crucial to appreciate the broader context and nuances of Confucius' teachings. Confucius aimed to create a society where rituals were not a rigid set of rules but a dynamic expression of ethical principles, contributing to the flourishing of both individual and societal well-being.
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