中国文化导论及经典文本选读
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On the "limitation" of Li

By 张婷 老师 11-16 6896次浏览

Some people believe Li or rituals are about organizing and structuring social and personal behaviors, and thus seem to conflict with human emotional instinct and free spirit. Then, can we draw the conclusion that Confucius is in line with inhumanity (as suggested by Bertrand Russel on page 54)?  

Post your answers online.

450 回复

  • 11班王芷绮 11-16

     1. What is "Freedom"? (on Kant's idea of Justice)

    "Freedom" in Kant's justice philosophy refers to the state where individuals exercise their rights and pursue goals without external interference. Kant argues that freedom is an inherent right of humanity, but it should be constrained by moral principles to ensure harmony between individual and collective freedoms.

     

    2. Why does the traditional Chinese society's economic and political structure need "Ritual"?

    In traditional Chinese society, "Ritual" is not just a ceremony but a moral guideline sustaining social order. By regulating behavior, "Ritual" encourages individuals to prioritize societal interests, contributing to social harmony. Its role in the economic and political structure lies in establishing a set of relatively fixed social norms and moral standards, aiding in stabilizing governance and societal relations.

     

     3. Maritime Countries and Continental Countries

    The distinction between maritime and continental countries is based on geographical and economic factors. Maritime countries, surrounded by seas, often have economies influenced by maritime activities like trade, fishing, and navigation, while continental countries, located inland, focus more on agriculture.

    4. Why did the Hellenistic tradition in Western culture give rise to metaphysics and monotheism?

    The Hellenistic tradition in Western culture spurred contemplation beyond the material world, fostering the development of metaphysics. This philosophical trend guided individuals beyond sensory experiences to seek higher truths. Simultaneously, the religious beliefs in the Hellenistic tradition laid the foundation for monotheism, concentrating faith in a single deity and emphasizing the universe's order and unity.

     

    No, it would be an oversimplification and a misinterpretation to conclude that Confucius is in line with inhumanity solely based on the criticism of Li or rituals. Confucianism, as propagated by Confucius, is a comprehensive philosophical and ethical system that goes beyond rituals. While rituals play a role in structuring social and personal behaviors, the core of Confucianism emphasizes ethical virtues, moral cultivation, and the development of benevolence (ren) and righteousness (yi).Bertrand Russell's suggestion of inhumanity might stem from a limited view of Confucianism or a specific interpretation of rituals. Confucius advocated for the harmonious coexistence of individuals within a society, emphasizing empathy, compassion, and the well-being of others. His teachings aimed at creating a moral and just society, and not at suppressing human emotional instincts or free spirit.In essence, Confucianism encourages a balanced approach that incorporates both ethical principles and humanistic values, aiming for a harmonious and virtuous society.

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    • 18班王佳佳 11-24
      1. What is "Freedom"? (on Kant's idea of Justice) According to Kant, true freedom is the opposite of necessity, it is also considered to mean that man has the free will to act not according to the law of nature or the law of cause and effect, but a law that he gives himself. 2. Why does the traditional Chinese society's economic and political structure need "Ritual"? ①China was a family state, the social organization is automatic and hierarchic because in a family the authority of the father is naturally superior to that of the son. The country is constructed by numerous families, so-called “family and country as one”. Therefore, internal moral standards are needed to maintain social order. ②"Ritual" has the nature of law and has become the main norm for maintaining social order in ancient Chinese society. Originating from sacrificial rites, Li system and etiquette, as the norms followed in sacrificial ceremonies, had the nature of customary law in the clan society and Xia-Shang-Zhou period. After the Xia-Shang-Zhou period, while retaining the nature of customary law, many contents of Li system were transformed into clauses in written laws. In addition to the laws enacted and promulgated by the state, the system of traditional Chinese law concerning litigation, marriage, family, clan, inheritance, identity, and so on, can be found in corresponding rules in Li. ③"Ritual" not only manifests as political systems and legal norms, but also as ethical norms that people generally follow in their daily lives. It guides people’s thinking and consciousness in the form of ethical morality, enabling them to accept the spirit of Li from the heart, follow its requirements, and meet its standards. 3.Maritime Countries and Continental Countries ① Marine countries, Marine countries in a broad sense as long as adjacent to the sea are counted, generally referring to the United Kingdom, the Netherlands, Japan and Japan and the United States, China is also a Marine country. ② continental countries, continental countries are landlocked countries, the territory does not include the sea, France, Germany and Russia are continental countries. 4.Why did the Greek and Roman tradition in Western culture give birth to metaphysics and monotheism? ①Firstly, the emergence of metaphysics can be traced back to the rise of ancient Greek philosophy. Greek philosophers delved deep into the nature of existence and the principles of the universe. Plato’s theory of Forms proposed the existence of an ideal world beyond the material realm, laying the foundation for later metaphysics. Aristotle’s metaphysics, on the other hand, explored the essence and structure of the universe from the perspective of reality and existence. These philosophical ideas from ancient Greece laid the groundwork for the development of metaphysics. ②Secondly, the emergence of monotheistic religions is closely intertwined with the mutual influence between Greek and Roman cultures. In ancient Greece, descriptions of numerous deities were already present in Greek tragedies and epic works. The rise of the Roman Empire absorbed Greek culture and developed Roman mythology based on Greek myths. However, with the passage of time and the diverse religious systems and cultural exchanges in the Greco-Roman world, some people began to reflect and seek the existence of a universal god. This wave of thought led to the rise of monotheistic religions such as Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. They attempted to unify diverse belief systems by worshiping a single God (or Allah) and spread throughout the Roman Empire and its subsequent successors, especially Christianity. ③In conclusion, the birth of metaphysics and monotheism in the Greco-Roman traditions can be attributed to the profound reflections on the nature of existence by ancient Greek philosophers, as well as the influence of the diverse religious systems and cultural exchanges in Greco-Roman culture. These factors prompted people to pursue beliefs in the essence of the transcendent world and a unified deity. 5. Can we draw the conclusion that Confucius is in line with inhumanity (as suggested by Bertrand Russel on page 54)? No, it is not accurate to draw the conclusion that Confucius is in line with inhumanity based on the suggestion made by Bertrand Russell. Confucius was a Chinese philosopher who lived during the 5th century BCE and his teachings focused on ethical conduct, social harmony, and the cultivation of virtue. Confucius emphasized the importance of treating others with respect, virtue, and adherence to moral principles. He advocated for filial piety, loyalty, justice, and benevolence as fundamental values in human relationships. Confucianism promotes concepts such as the golden rule, which encourages individuals to treat others as they would like to be treated themselves. It is worth noting that interpretations of Confucianism may vary, and there have been different perspectives on its applicability and relevance over time. However, characterizing Confucius or his teachings as inhumane is an oversimplified and inaccurate representation of his philosophy.
    • 19班高亚丽 12-17

      1、What is “Freedom”?(on Kant's idea of Justice)

      Kant believed that human moral norms and rights and obligations stem from human free will, and moral obligations are a type of right and obligation.Believing that justice is a right and obligation based on free will, a combination of rights and legal systems where people can freely exercise their own will and coexist with the freedom of all others in a legal state."Freedom" is the central idea of Kant's moral philosophy. Kant believed that humans are both "sensory" and "tangible", as well as "conceptual" and "ontological". In the world of experience, people are determined and not free, and their desires and actions are governed by the laws of causality in nature; Human beings are a free, morally active force that can make choices between good and evil, and are free and self determined.

      2、Why does the traditional Chinese society‘s economic and political structure need“Ritual”?

      Due to Confucianism's reverence for propriety and promotion of the rule of propriety, for over two thousand years, knowledge of books and etiquette has become a fundamental symbol of benevolence and gentlemanly conduct in feudal society. Harmony, frugality, courtesy, and respect have become traditional virtues in China. China is known as the "land of etiquette". Rites have played a positive role in maintaining national unity and stability, stabilizing social order, and restraining individual behavior. But in feudal society, especially in its later stages, ritual also had a side that constrained people's thinking and behavior.

      3.Maritime Countries and Continental Countries Maritime Countries: Maritime countries are those that have a significant coastline and rely on the sea for trade, transportation. Continental Countries: Continental countries are those that are geographically dominated by landmasses and have limited access to the sea. The difference between maritime countries and continental countries is primarily based on their geography, resources, and economic characteristics.

      4. Why did the Hellenistic tradition in Western culture give rise to metaphysics and monotheism?

      Firstly, the Hiro tradition emphasizes curiosity and the pursuit of knowledge about the unknown Desire, this spirit has driven philosophers to explore metaphysics. They try to understand by thinking about a world beyond experience.The essence and purpose of the world, thus forming metaphysics. Secondly, the Hiro tradition also values language and logical thinking. Philosophers explore the essence and truth of the world through language and logical analysis, which also provides an important way of thinking for the formation of metaphysics.

      On the other hand, philosophers in the Heroic tradition gradually realized the chaos and instability of the polytheistic faith. They believe that only one god can create and maintain the order and truth of the universe. Therefore, monotheistic beliefs gradually emerged in the Greek tradition. Philosophers attempt to prove the existence and essence of a god by contemplating the essence and purpose of the universe.

      Overall, the spirit of reflection, reversal, and retrospective in the Hiro tradition, as well as the curiosity and pursuit of knowledge about unknown things Desire, as well as the emphasis on language, provided important ideological foundations and cultural backgrounds for the birth of metaphysics and monotheism.

      5.Can we draw the conclusion that Confucius is in line with inhumanity (as suggested by Bertrand Russel on page 54)? Firstly, we need to understand the context and background in which Russell criticized Confucius. Russell interpreted and evaluated Confucius in the context of Western culture, which differs from Eastern culture in many aspects. Therefore, we need to conduct a specific analysis of Russell's criticism to see if it is reasonable.

      Secondly, Confucius' ideas have many aspects, including benevolence, righteousness, propriety, wisdom, and faith. These ideas are often positive and in line with humanitarian values. Therefore, we cannot simply reject Confucius' ideas just because Russell criticized some of his views.Finally, we need to recognize that every culture, ideology, or value has its advantages and disadvantages. We cannot deny a certain idea or value simply because it has flaws.

      On the contrary, we should conduct a comprehensive analysis and evaluation of it, to see which aspects are in line with humanitarianism and which aspects need improvement. Therefore, I believe that we cannot simply conclude that Confucius is inhumane. We need to conduct a comprehensive analysis of Confucius' thoughts to see if they conform to humanitarian values.

      At the same time, we also need to recognize any culture or ideology Both or values have their advantages and disadvantages, requiring comprehensive evaluation and improvement

    • 彭言 12-29
      According to Kant, true freedom is considered to mean that man has the free will to act according to his own legislation without being bound by the law of nature in the sense of moral real money, and that man's reason establishes the inevitable laws of nature in the aspect of objects, but therefore limits his own freedom. In real money, the same reason of man is able not to be bound by the laws of nature, but to act according to its own consistent universal law of free will. 2.Ritual play a crucial role in traditional Chinese law. Rites are the spiritual core of law, and they cannot be separated. Under the same goal of maintaining feudal autocratic rule, they play their respective roles and complement each other. As a symbol of Chinese traditional culture, ritual has been deeply rooted in the spiritual world of Chinese people, and has gained universal recognition. Its status and function even transcend the law and become the supreme existence. "Ritual" is actually a code of conduct generated by the interaction between people, or a social rule. The system itself, which is reached voluntarily and observed voluntarily through the interaction between people, is said to be efficient by institutional economics. Why is that? It's simple: an agreed result is a good result. 3. 1, Marine countries, Marine countries in a broad sense as long as adjacent to the sea are counted, generally referring to the United Kingdom, the Netherlands, Japan and Japan and the United States, China is also a Marine country. 2, continental countries, continental countries are landlocked countries, the territory does not include the sea, France, Germany and Russia are continental countries. 4. From the historical process of metaphysics development, there are actually three kinds of metaphysics: universal ontology, category ontology and meaning ontology. Greek philosophy originated from the search for "the universality of the world" (the original).
    • no 12-31
      1. What is "Freedom"? (on Kant's idea of Justice) According to Kant, true freedom is considered to mean that man has the free will to act according to his own legislation without being bound by the law of nature in the sense of moral real money, and that man's reason establishes the inevitable laws of nature in the aspect of objects, but therefore limits his own freedom. In real money, the same reason of man is able not to be bound by the laws of nature, but to act according to its own consistent universal law of free will. 2. Why does the traditional Chinese society's economic and political structure need "Ritual"? Ritual play a crucial role in traditional Chinese law. Rites are the spiritual core of law, and they cannot be separated. Under the same goal of maintaining feudal autocratic rule, they play their respective roles and complement each other. As a symbol of Chinese traditional culture, ritual has been deeply rooted in the spiritual world of Chinese people, and has gained universal recognition. Its status and function even transcend the law and become the supreme existence. "Ritual" is actually a code of conduct generated by the interaction between people, or a social rule. The system itself, which is reached voluntarily and observed voluntarily through the interaction between people, is said to be efficient by institutional economics. Why is that? It's simple: an agreed result is a good result. 3.Maritime Countries and Continental Countries 1, Marine countries, Marine countries in a broad sense as long as adjacent to the sea are counted, generally referring to the United Kingdom, the Netherlands, Japan and Japan and the United States, China is also a Marine country. 2, continental countries, continental countries are landlocked countries, the territory does not include the sea, France, Germany and Russia are continental countries. 4. Why did the Hellenistic tradition in Western culture give rise to metaphysics and monotheism? From the historical process of metaphysics development, there are actually three kinds of metaphysics: universal ontology, category ontology and meaning ontology. Greek philosophy originated from the search for "the universality of the world" (the original). 5. Can we draw the conclusion that Confucius is in line with inhumanity (as suggested by Bertrand Russel on page 54)? No, we cannot conclude that Confucius is consistent with inhumanity simply because rites or rituals conflict with human emotional instincts and the spirit of freedom. While Confucius did emphasize the importance of etiquette and social structure, this was not at the expense of humanity or free will. Confucius believed rites were important in promoting social harmony and respect for others, but also emphasized the importance of compassion, empathy, and personal expression. In addition, Russell's evaluation of Confucian inhumanity is narrow and limited. Confucianism and philosophy have evolved over time, and there is no single, unitary interpretation of Confucianism.
    • 5乔佳逸 12-31
      Confucianism, as expounded by Confucius, is a philosophical and ethical system that encompasses a wide range of principles, and the concept of Li (rituals) is a crucial component of this system. While Bertrand Russell suggested on page 54 of his work that Confucius is in line with inhumanity due to his emphasis on rituals, it's important to delve into the nuanced understanding of Confucianism to gain a more comprehensive perspective. Confucius lived during a time of social and political turmoil in ancient China. He sought to restore social order, moral values, and harmony to a society plagued by disunity and moral decay. In this context, Confucius advocated for the importance of rituals as a means to cultivate ethical behavior, respect for tradition, and a harmonious social order. The term Li, often translated as "rituals" or "propriety," carries a multifaceted meaning in Confucian thought. It encompasses various aspects, including social rituals, ceremonies, and proper conduct. Li, in the Confucian context, is not merely a set of empty or rigid rituals; instead, it is a dynamic concept that involves a deep understanding of appropriateness in various situations. One key aspect of Li is its role in organizing and structuring social and personal behaviors. Confucius believed that adherence to rituals could serve as a guide for individuals in their interactions with others, fostering respect, courtesy, and a sense of propriety. In this sense, rituals were seen as a framework for social harmony and order. However, it is crucial to avoid oversimplification and recognize that Confucius did not view rituals as an end in themselves. Rather, they were a means to an end – a way to cultivate moral character. Confucius emphasized the importance of sincerity and inner virtue. The performance of rituals, according to Confucius, should not be a superficial or mechanical exercise but an expression of genuine moral principles. Confucius believed that individuals should approach rituals with a sincere heart and a commitment to moral values. In this way, the external observance of rituals was intimately connected with internal ethical development. Confucius aimed to create a society where individuals, guided by rituals, would naturally exhibit benevolence, righteousness, and other virtuous qualities. Furthermore, Confucius did not advocate blind obedience to tradition or rigid adherence to rituals. He acknowledged the need for flexibility and adaptability, emphasizing that rituals should be adjusted according to changing circumstances while maintaining the underlying moral principles. This flexibility allows for the integration of human emotional instinct and adaptability within the framework of Li. Confucius' teachings were deeply rooted in the ethical cultivation of individuals. He believed that personal moral development, guided by rituals, would contribute to the betterment of society as a whole. Confucius' emphasis on rituals, therefore, was a means to harmonize human relationships, uphold ethical standards, and contribute to the overall well-being of society. In addressing the potential conflict between Li and human emotional instinct, it's essential to note that Confucius did not seek to suppress human emotions or curb personal freedom. Instead, he advocated for a harmonious balance between emotional expression and ethical conduct. The rituals were considered a guide for individuals to express their emotions in socially appropriate ways, fostering a community built on mutual respect and understanding. While Bertrand Russell's characterization of Confucius as in line with inhumanity may arise from a partial understanding of Confucianism, it is crucial to appreciate the broader context and nuances of Confucius' teachings. Confucius aimed to create a society where rituals were not a rigid set of rules but a dynamic expression of ethical principles, contributing to the flourishing of both individual and societal well-being.
  • Ivy 11-16

    1. What is "Freedom"? (on Kant's idea of Justice)

    Kant's concept of justice centers around the idea of treating individuals as ends in themselves and not merely as means to an end. In this context, justice is about respecting and upholding individual rights, including the right to freedom. This means that individuals should be able to exercise their freedom as long as it does not infringe on the equal freedom of others.

    2.Why does the traditional Chinese society's economic and political structure need "Ritual"

    It is important to note that while traditional Chinese society placed great emphasis on ritual, contemporary China has experienced significant societal changes. While elements of ritual remain in certain aspects of Chinese culture, the economic and political structures have evolved to accommodate modern developments.

    3.Maritime Countries and Continental Countries

    The distinction between maritime countries and continental countries is primarily based on their geography, resources, and economic characteristics.

    4.Why did the Hellenistic tradition in Western culture give rise to metaphysics and monotheism?

    The rise of metaphysics and monotheism in Western culture cannot be solely attributed to the Hellenistic tradition. While the Hellenistic period did have an influence on Western philosophical and religious thought, it is necessary to consider multiple factors that contributed to the development of these concepts.

    Metaphysics, as a philosophical discipline, examines the fundamental nature of reality, including the relationship between mind and matter, substance and attributes, and cause and effect. The origins of metaphysical inquiry can be traced back to ancient Greek philosophers like Parmenides, Heraclitus, and Plato, who explored questions about the nature of existence and knowledge. However, it is worth noting that metaphysical inquiries were not limited to the Hellenistic tradition but also evolved independently in other cultures.

    Similarly, the concept of monotheism, the belief in one God, has roots in various religious and philosophical traditions across different cultures. In the context of Western culture, monotheism gained prominence primarily through the Abrahamic religions, such as Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. These religions emerged in different historical periods and regions, and their teachings and beliefs were influenced by a variety of cultural factors, including the Hellenistic period in some cases.

    It is important to recognize that cultural, historical, and socio-political contexts play significant roles in the evolution of philosophical and religious ideas. While the Hellenistic tradition contributed to the development of metaphysics and had some impact on monotheism, it is crucial to consider the broader historical and cultural landscape to fully understand the emergence and evolution of these concepts in Western culture.

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  • 7班李漪涵 11-16

    1. What is "Freedom"? (on Kant's idea of Justice)

    Kant's idea of justice is based on the concept of freedom, which he defines as the ability to act according to one's own will, without external coercion or interference. In this sense, freedom is the foundation of justice, as it allows individuals to make their own choices and be responsible for their actions.

    2. Why does the traditional Chinese society's economic and political structure need "Ritual"?

    Social Order and Stability: Rituals provided a framework for maintaining social order and harmony within the community. 

    Legitimizing Authority: Rituals were used to legitimize the authority of rulers and government officials.

    Moral and Ethical Guidance: Rituals were deeply intertwined with Confucian ethics, emphasizing virtues such as filial piety, respect for elders, and social responsibility.

    Economic Exchange: Rituals also played a role in economic transactions and trade. 

    3.Maritime Countries and Continental Countries

    The terms "maritime countries" and "continental countries" are often used to categorize nations based on their geographical characteristics and their relationship with bodies of water.

    Maritime Countries: Maritime countries are those that have a significant coastline and rely on the sea for trade, transportation, and often defense. These nations typically have a strong maritime tradition and may have a large portion of their population living in coastal areas. Maritime countries often have a strong emphasis on naval power, fishing, and maritime trade. Examples of maritime countries include Japan, the United Kingdom, Indonesia, and Norway.

    Continental Countries: Continental countries, on the other hand, are those that are geographically dominated by landmasses and have limited access to the sea. These nations often have a greater emphasis on land-based trade and transportation, and their economies and cultures may be more influenced by their immediate neighbors rather than by maritime influences. Examples of continental countries include Russia, China, Brazil, and Germany.

    4. Why did the Hellenistic tradition in Western culture give rise to metaphysics and monotheism?

    the Hellenistic tradition in Western culture provided the intellectual, cultural, and religious context that gave rise to metaphysical inquiry and the development of monotheistic beliefs, laying the foundation for the evolution of Western philosophical and theological thought.

    5.Can we draw the conclusion that Confucius is in line with inhumanity (as suggested by Bertrand Russel on page 54)?  

    No, we cannot draw the conclusion that Confucius is in line with inhumanity as suggested by Bertrand Russel based solely on the belief that Li or rituals conflict with human emotional instinct and free spirit. While it is true that Confucius emphasized the importance of Li and social structure, this was not at the expense of humanity or free will.

    Confucius believed that Li was important in promoting social harmony and respect for others, but also emphasized the importance of compassion, empathy, and individual expression. In fact, he stated that one must first develop oneself before being able to properly engage with society and Li.

    Furthermore, Russell’s assessment of Confucianism as inhuman can be considered narrow and limited. Confucian thought and philosophy have evolved over time, and there is no singular, monolithic interpretation of Confucianism.

    Overall, it is important to approach Confucianism and its concepts of Li and humanity with an open mind and nuanced understanding, rather than making sweeping conclusions based on limited perspectives.

     

     

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  • 胡云铧 11-16

    If we want to answer this question, we need to figure out something related to justice, freedom, rituals, traditional Chinese structure. 

    • Firstly,What is Justice or liberty?

    In the moral philosophy, Kant conceives of persons as free moral agents, endowed with the capacity to make decisions independently of external causal forces and their own desires. Such agents are, for Kant, both equal and autonomous: equal in the sense that they each possess the same worth or dignity, and autonomous in that they are capable of self-legislating the moral law, committing themselves to what they recognize as universal, rational constraints on their own action. In Kant’s political philosophy, “the legal system is the framework of coordination through which citizens take each other into account in this way. The laws that are morally legitimate for Kant are those under which we could think of ourselves as free, equal, and independent citizens, voting unanimously to commit to them and make them our own.” So from this respect, we can see that the freedom or the liberty isn’t unrestricted. So we need to exercise our right in a certain circle. 

    • Secondly, why the rituals is needed in tradition China?

    1.Law is an integral part of the system of etiquette. After the Qin and Han dynasties, especially after the middle of the Han Dynasty, etiquette, as a norm of words and deeds, was not only an organic part of the law, but also the highest guiding principle of the legal system of the entire feudal society. Rites play the normative function of law in society, which is realized through the way of introducing rites into the law and converging rites and laws. Although rituals and laws are independent, because rituals have the special function of regulating people's behavior and adjusting social order, it is not only necessary but also possible to introduce rituals into the law. The introduction of rites into the law began in the Han Dynasty, and Han Confucianism used Confucianism as a guide to interpret the law, until the sentence ofimprisonment was executed. After the development of the Wei, Jin, Southern and Northern Dynasties, the Tang Dynasty established the legislative guiding principle of "morality and propriety as the foundation of politics and religion, and punishment as the use of politics and religion", so that the combination of ritual and law was not only completed, but also reached the highest peak of Chinese feudal society. The famous Tang law was passed down to the world with the principle of "being accurate and courteous, and achieving the peace of the ancient and the modern". From then on, until the end of the Qing Dynasty, the etiquette norms that maintained the hierarchical society, such as the eight-discussion system, the petition system, the system of reduction, redemption, official office, and dismissal, constituted an organic part of Chinese feudal law, and became the basic principle guiding feudal legislation and justice.

    2.Etiquette is not only manifested as a political system and legal norms, but also an ethical norm that people generally follow in their daily lives, which guides people's ideology in the form of ethics and morality, so that people can accept the spirit of etiquette from the heart, follow the requirements of etiquette, and conform to the norms of etiquette. This is the etiquette and music education advocated by Confucianism.

    Followings are some telling examples in ancient Chinese to demonstrate what  I talked about just now.

    At the beginning of the week, the metric system of the week was made for music, and the ceremony was supplemented by virtue; In the late Spring and Autumn period, Confucius further interpreted benevolence as the most perfect ethical morality. The original meaning of benevolence is to love others, and to use it to deal with the relationship between father and son and brother, that is, fatherly kindness, filial piety, brotherhood, and brotherhood; Dealing with the relationship between the monarch and the minister is "the king makes the minister courteous, and the minister is loyal" ("Eight Hundred"); Dealing with the relationship between peers is to "establish others if you want to, and reach people if you want to reach others"("Yongye"), "Do not do to others what you do not want to do to yourself" ("Wei Linggong"). In terms of the relationship between benevolence and propriety, Confucius enriched propriety with benevolence, believing that Zhou rite is the most perfect ethical norm and system, and benevolence is the most perfect ethical concept and character; Benevolence is the spiritual essence of etiquette, "people are not benevolent, such as courtesy"! If people don't have the spirit of benevolence, etiquette is useless. In this way, in the connotation of etiquette, the moral factor gradually develops, so that later it reaches the point that "moral benevolence and righteousness, incivility does not become incivility"(Qu Li).Dong Zhongshu summarized the general thinking that had emerged in the pre-Qin period, and summarized various ethical norms as "three outlines and five constants". The "Three Principles and Five Constants" are not only the principles of etiquette and religion, but also the norms of morality. It absolutizes the social hierarchy and becomes a sacred moral code that everyone must abide by. After the rise of the Song and Ming dynasties, rites were raised to the height of heavenly principles. Cheng Zhu Lixue equates Tianli with the norms of ethics. Zhu Xi once said: "My so-called Taoist, of course, is the truth of the monarchs, ministers, fathers, sons, couples, brothers, and friends."  Such etiquette is a moral law that people must obey and obey. The purpose of the theorists to equate the principles of heaven with propriety is to make a metaphysical argument for feudal ethics, so that people can feel from the heart that obedience to the guidelines is the nature of the principles of heaven. It can be seen that the solidification of rituals into a common name religion plays a very important role in maintaining the hierarchical order of feudal society.

    Therefore, we can say that Confucius is in line with humanity instead of inhumanity.

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    • 文小丫 11-26

      1.什么是“自由”? ( video on Kant's idea of Justice5:00)

      From the video we can know that Kant has a more stringent demanding notion:freedom of autonomy and morality. (Freedom of autonomy means that we’re acting as slaves of our impulses and appetites. And in the process of pursuing it to satisfy ourselves according to our necessity , we should have our own law. Freedom of morality means that to act freely is not to choose the best means to a given end. It’s to choose the end itself for its own sake. We have the freedom to desire what we want, but the ways we conduct our desire must not disturb others’ freedom to obey the rules of social morality.)

      And here comes my critical understanding of “freedom”:

      When I read something about “paradox” last weekend, I came across a sentence excerpted form 1984 by George Orewell, that is: Freedom is slavery. And I do believe that we should understand freedom dialectically. Because there is no absolute freedom and in fact, absolute freedom is never less dreary than absolute slavery. Those with absolute freedom have to make their own decisions and determine their own life course, and most importantly, they must undertake all the possible consequences or results on their own; and thus, they become slaves of themselves. So I’d like to claim that the freedom to act on your own thoughts is enslaving yourself with all the consequences; and the slavery of the community is actually freeing yourself from certain dangers. Metaphorically, everyone of us is a bird living in a cage. To escape from the cage is to enter a bigger cage, which is the outside world. In fact, every cage is exterior. The real freedom is in our interior heart. So we should “act according to a law we give ourselves” promoted by Kant. We should know how to please and satisfy ourselves to achieve the real freedom.

      2.中国传统社会的经济政治结构为什么需要“礼”? (p.24)

      According to Geographic Background of the Chinese People, compared with the Greeks who lived in a maritime country, the Chinese living in the continental country have a form of social organization based on the common interest of the family instead of town. In the family state, the social organization is automatic and hierarchic, which lays a solid foundation for “Li”.

      Actually, China is a rural society. The ideology of rural society is still rooted in its economic foundation, and the economic form of traditional society is agricultural economy. So "relying on the mountain to eat, relying on water to drink(靠山吃山,靠水吃水)" is the basic life style of grass-roots people, and their settlement with agriculture in the first place leads to limitations of regions, and further of interpersonal relations. Generation after generation, the common people have cultivated, socialized, and raised their families all on the same land. So how can people gain a better life? Well, I doubt they will be be seized by a whim and suddenly determine to go to another land far away, regarding themselves as brave adventurers or entrepreneurs. Instead, they seek for experiences to make lives easier. In that way, “experience” becomes crucial and sacred, with a strong “worship of experience formed(经验崇拜)” in the rural society. And where does the experience come from? Actually, our ancestors and the elders. So we have to hold reverence and respect for them. And “Li”, which constitutes of “the tradition, hierarchy and etiquette” has been gradually passed down.

      3.西方文化中的希罗传统为什么会诞生形而上学和一神教?

      The Hellenistic tradition in Western culture spurred contemplation beyond the material world, fostering the development of metaphysics. This philosophical trend leads individuals to go beyond sensory experience and seek a higher truth. And Descartes also once claimed that: Philosophy is like the "root" of a tree; physics, the "trunk", and other sciences, the "branches". The metaphysics is almost ingrained in the westerners. At the time of the rise of monotheism, the society was in the stage of the disintegration of primitive society and the formation of class society, in which time the contradictions between nobility and commoners in clan society and between slave owners and slaves after entering class society were very sharp. Therefore, the essence of metaphysics and the rise of the monotheism is to maintain the unity of society and to emphasize the universe's order and unity.

      4.From my perspective, there are some misunderstandings Russel’s interpretations of Confucianism. And certainly it’s inappropriate to jump to the conclusion that Confucius is in line with inhumanity just by Mr.Russel’s interpretations. So I’d love to in the first place clear up the misunderstandings and further illustrate Li’s real significance in the society.

      According to Mr.Russel, Li seems more like the self-control or the suppression of one’s own passion and emotions, which conflict with human instinct and free spirit. What’s more, the filial piety is a barrier to the growth of public spirits and the construction more suited to modern needs. And Confucianism has been degenerated into an etiquette book incompatible with politics.

      Above are the main misinterpretation by Mr.Russel. But if he spent more time reading more classics of Confucius, his outlooks wouldn’t be found this one-sided. Confucianism is far more than about etiquette and hierarchy in the family and social level. It also connotes some moral codes and strategies for state government, such as“德不孤,必有邻”and “为政以德,譬如北辰,居其所而众星共之”. And the sincerity and appropriateness (or namely, the Golden means) are also the fundamental elements in Li. In effect, the advocation of the attitude of “keeping clam reason always in control of all his actions” is in that Confucianism believes the human ability to control themselves rationally without the need for any other external forces, which is also a reflection of Confucian humanity.

      Besides this, there are other clues hinting us at Confucius’ humanity. And in fact, “Ren” remains the main means to humanity. Confucius believes that human nature is shaped, awakened, and perfected through self-cultivation and social education, and in this process, the moral concept of "Ren" will become a core goal. He also believes that if a person can do what they do not want to do to others(己所不欲勿施于人), they can reach the realm of "Ren". This means that everyone should respect others and uphold the virtues of honesty, justice, and humility.

      So what’s the underlying reason of Westerners’ frequent misunderstanding of Confucianism as inhumanity? Actually, comparing the Western and Eastern culture, we have no difficulty finding that the West concerns more about the logic, universality and substantiality while the East lay more emphasis on the practicality, specificity and functionality and Confucius himself is actually a practical stateman himself, caring more about a peaceful and prosperous community on earth rather than the spiritual beings and metaphysical thinking. Therefore, to define Confucius’s inhumanity, it’s not fair to rely on one story and generalize the whole Confucianism and even the Chinese mind. Circumstances alter cases.

      Given the economic and political structure of traditional Chinese society at that time, “Li” is actually reasonable China is a continental country, which is based on the the family structure and agricultural economy. So it values and worships the virtues of former ages, under which condition “Li” comes into being and wins a high status in society. I admit that Li may be with limitations but it’s just the limitations that contributes to social order, being the mediator between individuals’ freedom to ensure the overall freedom. Li that seems a hindrance to freedom can, when properly conducted, support and maintain freedom. Providing a subject’s action that would limit the freedom of another subject, the Li may prevent the first subject to defend the second by limitations. Such limitations are compatible with the maximal freedom demanded in the principle of “Ren(仁)” and “loyalty and reciprocity(忠恕)” because it does not reduce overall freedom but instead provides the necessary moral and cultural background needed to secure freedom. The amount of freedom lost by the first subject through Li is equal to the amount gained by the second subject through lifting the hindrance to actions. Then Li sustains the maximal amount of freedom consistent with identical freedom for all without reducing it.

      In a nutshell, Confucianism is never in line with inhumanity. Instead, it helps to promote “Ren”, reflect human ability of self-control and realize the maximum of freedom in a peaceful and prosperous community, as is perpetually wished by Confucius.

    • 文小丫 11-28
      Additional remarks on Q1: To achieve the real freedom is in our interior heart, one effective way is to self-educate. T. S. Eliot once said that “It is in fact a part of the function of education to help us escape—not from our own time, for we are bound by that—but from the intellectual and emotional limitations of our own time.” Therefore, if we’re born to be restricted in our life, then why not try to educate ourselves about self-love and self-satisfying to smash down all the limitations and pursue higher intellect and healthier emotions in the deep of our hearts?
    • 彭措 12-25
      1. What is "Freedom"? (on Kant's idea of Justice) Kant's definition of freedom. The so-called generalized freedom means that although the monad is determined to move in a certain way, this decisive force comes from the internal nature of the monad, which can be said to be the internal cause. This shows that the list is not subject to the constraints and tendencies of external forces, so it is said that he is free. Or rather, freedom is the unhindered unhindered transformation of something into what it is meant to become. Liberty in the narrow sense is considered to mean the possession of man in the sense of moral practice, free from the laws of nature, free from the instincts of the flesh, and acting according to the universal laws of his own consistent free will. The theory of freedom in the broad sense is the basis for the practice of freedom in the narrow sense. Specifically, the concept of freedom is defined in terms of three levels: transcendental freedom (cognitive level), practical freedom (practical level), and freedom of feeling (psychological level).   2. Why does the traditional Chinese society's economic and political structure need "Ritual"? The economic and political structure of traditional Chinese society needs "rites" because "rites" have a very important position and role in traditional Chinese culture, it is a norm that regulates people's behavior and social relations, and plays an important role in maintaining social stability and order. At the same time, "li" is also a form of political system and social organization, which plays an important role in maintaining social stability and political order. Finally, "li" is also a way of cultural inheritance and education, which plays an important role in inheriting and promoting Chinese culture.    3. Maritime Countries and Continental Countries Maritime countries and continental countries refer to the two types of countries with different geographical locations and economic development characteristics. Maritime countries are generally located along the coastline or on islands, with convenient waterways and abundant marine resources. These countries usually have developed shipping, fishing, tourism and other industries, and their economic development is closely related to the ocean. Examples of maritime countries include the United States, the United Kingdom, Japan, and Singapore. Continental countries are generally located in the mainland of the world, with vast land areas and abundant land resources. These countries usually have developed agriculture, mining, manufacturing and other industries, and their economic development is closely related to the mainland. Examples of continental countries include China, Russia, India, and Brazil. The distinction between maritime countries and continental countries is not absolute, and some countries may have both maritime and continental characteristics. At the same time, with the development of globalization and economic integration, the boundaries between maritime countries and continental countries are becoming increasingly blurred, and countries are increasingly seeking cooperation and exchanges to promote common development. 4. Why did the Hellenistic tradition in Western culture give rise to metaphysics and monotheism? The Hellenistic tradition in Western culture gave rise to metaphysics and monotheism for a number of reasons. Here are some possible explanations: 1. The influence of Plato: Plato was a philosopher in ancient Greece who developed a system of metaphysics based on the idea of Forms. According to Plato, the Forms are eternal and unchanging ideals or archetypes that exist independently of the physical world. This idea had a profound influence on the development of Western metaphysics, and many later philosophers, such as Aristotle and Plotinus, built on Plato's work. 2. The influence of Stoicism: Stoicism was a philosophy that developed in ancient Greece and Rome, and it emphasized the importance of reason and virtue. Stoics believed that the universe was governed by a rational and divine order, and that humans could achieve happiness and wisdom by living in accordance with this order. This idea had a significant influence on the development of Western metaphysics and monotheism, as it suggested that there was a single, rational God who governed the universe. 3. The influence of Christianity: Christianity was founded in the first century AD, and it quickly became the dominant religion in the Western world. Christianity taught that there was a single, all-powerful God who created the universe and everything in it. This idea was compatible with the metaphysics of the Hellenistic tradition, and many Christian philosophers, such as Augustine and Thomas Aquinas, built on the work of earlier philosophers to develop a Christian metaphysics. In summary, the Hellenistic tradition in Western culture gave rise to metaphysics and monotheism because of the influence of Plato, Stoicism, and Christianity. These哲学观点强调理性、永恒和单一的神的存在, which had a profound influence on the development of Western thought.
  • 2021级2班付乐 11-16

    1. Within Kant's concept of justice, "freedom" is the condition in which people are able to exercise their rights and pursue their objectives without external hindrance. According to Kant, moral norms should impose restrictions on freedom in order to maintain a balance between the rights of the individual and the group. Freedom is an intrinsic right of mankind.

    2. While ritual was highly valued in old Chinese culture, it is crucial to remember that society has changed significantly in modern China. Certain components of Chinese culture still have ritualistic elements, but the political and economic systems have changed to reflect contemporary advancements.

    3. Countries classified as continental or maritime are distinguished by geographic and economic characteristics. Countries that are maritime—those that are around by seas—often have economies that are impacted by marine pursuits like trading, fishing, and navigation, whereas inland continental nations prioritize agriculture.

    4.  It would be incorrect to credit the emergence of monotheism and metaphysics in Western culture only to the Hellenistic tradition. Even while Western philosophical and theological thinking was influenced by the Hellenistic era, there were other elements that also had a role in the development of these ideas.

    As a branch of philosophy, metaphysics studies the essence of reality, including the interrelationships between characteristics, matter and mind, and cause and effect. Ancient Greek philosophers who studied the essence of existence and knowing, such as Parmenides, Heraclitus, and Plato, are credited with inspiring metaphysical inquiry. It is important to remember, nevertheless, that metaphysical questions did not just arise in the Hellenistic tradition; they also developed on their own in other civilizations.

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  • 4班赵亚莹 11-16

    1. What is "Freedom"? (on Kant's idea of Justice)

    According to Kant, true freedom is considered to mean that man has the free will to act according to his own legislation without being bound by the law of nature in the sense of moral real money, and that man's reason establishes the inevitable laws of nature in the aspect of objects, but therefore limits his own freedom. In real money, the same reason of man is able not to be bound by the laws of nature, but to act according to its own consistent universal law of free will.

     

    2. Why does the traditional Chinese society's economic and political structure need "Ritual"?

    Ritual play a crucial role in traditional Chinese law. Rites are the spiritual core of law, and they cannot be separated. Under the same goal of maintaining feudal autocratic rule, they play their respective roles and complement each other. As a symbol of Chinese traditional culture, ritual has been deeply rooted in the spiritual world of Chinese people, and has gained universal recognition. Its status and function even transcend the law and become the supreme existence.

    "Ritual" is actually a code of conduct generated by the interaction between people, or a social rule. The system itself, which is reached voluntarily and observed voluntarily through the interaction between people, is said to be efficient by institutional economics. Why is that? It's simple: an agreed result is a good result.

     

    3.Maritime Countries and Continental Countries

    1, Marine countries, Marine countries in a broad sense as long as adjacent to the sea are counted, generally referring to the United Kingdom, the Netherlands, Japan and Japan and the United States, China is also a Marine country.

    2, continental countries, continental countries are landlocked countries, the territory does not include the sea, France, Germany and Russia are continental countries.

     

    4. Why did the Hellenistic tradition in Western culture give rise to metaphysics and monotheism?

    From the historical process of metaphysics development, there are actually three kinds of metaphysics: universal ontology, category ontology and meaning ontology. Greek philosophy originated from the search for "the universality of the world" (the original).

     

    5. Can we draw the conclusion that Confucius is in line with inhumanity (as suggested by Bertrand Russel on page 54)?

    No, we cannot conclude that Confucius is consistent with inhumanity simply because rites or rituals conflict with human emotional instincts and the spirit of freedom. While Confucius did emphasize the importance of etiquette and social structure, this was not at the expense of humanity or free will.

    Confucius believed rites were important in promoting social harmony and respect for others, but also emphasized the importance of compassion, empathy, and personal expression.

    In addition, Russell's evaluation of Confucian inhumanity is narrow and limited. Confucianism and philosophy have evolved over time, and there is no single, unitary interpretation of Confucianism.

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  • 7班邓小燕 11-16

    It is important to consider multiple perspectives when discussing philosophical ideas. While some people may argue that Confucius' emphasis on rituals and social structures can be seen as conflicting with human emotions and free spirit, it is not accurate to conclude that Confucius is in line with inhumanity based solely on this perspective.

    Confucius believed that rituals and social order were essential for maintaining harmony within society. He believed that by following these rituals, individuals could cultivate virtuous behavior and create a harmonious community. However, it is crucial to note that Confucius also emphasized the importance of empathy, benevolence, and the cultivation of one's inner virtues.

    Bertrand Russell's suggestion that Confucius is in line with inhumanity may be a misinterpretation or oversimplification of Confucian philosophy. Confucius' teachings were focused on the betterment of individuals and society through ethical behavior, self-cultivation, and moral principles. While rituals and social structures were significant in Confucianism, they were not meant to suppress human emotions or free spirit, but rather to guide individuals in their interactions with others.

    Therefore, it would be more accurate to say that Confucius' teachings aimed to balance social order and individual freedom, rather than promoting inhumanity.

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  • 刘小钰 11-16

    1.What is “freedom” according to Kants?

    Kant’s notion of freedom is more stringent, he defines freedom as to seek after what is beyond the natural necessity. For Kant, freedom is the antonym of necessity. To chase the real freedom, we need to choose or create something we determine from out point if view. To act freely is to act autonomously, is to act according to a law I give myself rather than a physical laws of nature or the laws of cause or effect.

     

    The internet: Kant believed that man should think and act according to his own free will, will himself to enact moral law for himself, and execute it as an absolute command, so as to transcend the necessity of perceptual nature and reach the freedom of reason itself.

     

    2.Why did the economic and political structure of traditional Chinese society need Li?

    ①Political structure: China was a family state, the social organization is automatic and hierarchic because in a family the authority of the father is naturally superior to that of the son. (p24) That is to say, Chinese political structure needed Li to maintain the traditional family relationships and the power of the ruling class.

    ②Economic structure: In China, there was no desire for change, and also Chinese people didn’t conceive any change. So, China failed to have an industrial revolution. (p24&25) And also, China is a continental country which focuses more on agriculture. That is to say, China needed Li to keep its society stable.   

      

    3.Why did the Greek and Roman tradition in Western culture give birth to metaphysics and monotheism?

    (search on the Internet) :

    ①Metaphysics: Greek philosophy originated from the search for the "universality of the world" (the original), which formed the Ionian and Southern Italian philosophical traditions respectively. The former includes the Miletus School and the Heraclitan philosophy, which is characterized by the intuitive recognition, by observational experience, that the infinity of nature is unified in a certain form of matter. The Southern Italian tradition focused on metaphysical speculation, with the Pythagoreans first trying to explain the nature of the world in abstract forms such as numbers and spatial forms, and the Eleans establishing the principles of nature by means of yearning argumentation. Later natural philosophy (elementalism, seed theory, and atomism) integrated and further the two philosophical traditions, asserting that the discontinuous, movable elementary particles of matter are the origin of the universe, and systematically proposing the theory of the formation and evolution of the universe. At the end of the 4th century B.C., Greek philosophy entered Athens. After the Sophists negated all objective principles, Socrates put forward the philosophical metaphysics of looking for "universal definition" behind the concrete being. On this basis, his disciple Plato developed the view of the universal origin of all things into a set of exquisite conceptual theory system, expanding the knowledge of the study of all existence; Aristotle integrated almost all the previous contents of natural philosophy and metaphysics, established the category system of ontological philosophy with entity theory as the center, and the theories of "four causes" and "potential and realization" to study the change of things, forming a systematic and profound natural philosophy.( 希腊哲学起源于对“世界的普遍性”(本原)的探索,分别形成了伊奥尼亚哲学传统和南意大利哲学传统。前者包括米利都学派和赫拉克利特哲学,其特点是凭借观察经验,直观地认识到自然的无限性统一于某种形态的物质。南意大利传统则注重形而上的思辨,其中毕达哥拉斯学派*早试图从数和空间形式等抽象形式中说明世界的本性,爱利亚学派则用思念论证的方式确立自然的原理。后期的自然哲学(元素论、种子说和原子论)综合与深化了两张哲学传统,主张间断、可动的物质基本粒子是宇宙的本源,并系统的提出了宇宙生成与演化的学说。公元前4世纪末,希腊哲学进入雅典,在经历了智者派否定一切客观原则之后,苏格拉底提出了寻找具体的存在物背后“普遍定义”的哲学形而上学;其弟子柏拉图在此基础上把万物普遍本原的观点发展成为一套精致的理念论体系,拓展了研究全体存在的知识;亚里士多德几乎综合了之前自然哲学和形而上学的所有内容,建立了以实体学说为中心存在论哲学范畴体系,以及研究事物变化的“四因说”、“潜能与实现”等理论,形成了系统、深刻的自然哲学。)

    The Ancient Greek period was the initial stage of the origin and development of metaphysics. Parmenides took the first step of metaphysics, making the study of western philosophy gradually shift from natural philosophy to metaphysics, until Aristotle made metaphysics reach the peak of the ancient Greek period, pushing the speculation of the world "what" and "why" to the peak. It laid the foundation for the development of the whole history of Western philosophy. Therefore, to sort out the origin and development of metaphysics in ancient Greece is the necessity of studying the development of western metaphysics. (古希腊时期是形而上学的起源和发展的*初阶段,巴门尼德迈出了形而上学的第一步,使西方哲学研究由自然哲学逐渐转向形而上学,直至亚里士多德使得形而上学达到古希腊时期的顶峰,将世界“是什么”、“因为什么”的思辨推到了顶点,为整个西方哲学史的发展基调奠定基础。因此,梳理形而上学在古希腊时期的起源与发展是研究西方形而上学发展的必然。)

    ②Monotheism: In ancient Rome in the third century BC, a philosophical group called the Stoics argued that there was only one god, whose name varied because of his or her role in heaven or on earth. Increased connectivity among civilizations may have inspired belief in the unity of the gods. People find a connection between their own gods and the gods of other civilizations. They began to see that the different gods and deities were not in opposition to each other, but were expressions of the same concept. Some scholars contrast the unity of the gods with monotheism. Assman calls this "evolutionary monotheism"; Durdin calls it "philosophical monotheism". However, not all religious scholars agree with this interpretation. (在公元前3世纪的古罗马,名为斯多噶学派(Stoics)的哲学组织主张只有一个神,神名字的不同是因为他/她在天堂或是地上的角色不同。各个文明间连通性的增加或许激励了众神归一的信仰。人们会在自己信仰的众神和其他文明的众神间找到联系。他们开始看到不同的神祗和诸神间并非是相互对立的,而都是相同概念的表达。一些学者会拿众神归一和一神教做对比。Assman称之为“进化一神教”;Durdin则称它为“哲学一神教”。不过,不是所有宗教的学者都认同这种解释。)      

    4.Was Confucius in line with inhumanity?

    The answer is obviously no. In my opinion, Li is the outward expression and real revelation of "sincere" emotion. Only when people have the "respectful" emotion and attitude from the heart, will they express such emotion as “Li”; Compared with the form of Li, Confucius paid more attention to the emotional characteristics of "qi" and expanded the emotional sensibility of Li.                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    

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  • 12班王怡嫱 11-16

    1. What is "Freedom"? (on Kant's idea of Justice)

    The core concept of Kant's moral philosophy is freedom. In Kant's view, people not only belong to the "feeling" or "phenomenal" world, but also belong to the "conceptual" or "ontology" world. As part of the world of empirical phenomena, man is determined and unfree, and his will and behavior are subject to the causal law of the natural world. As part of the rational ontology world, man is a free and moral driving force. He is free and self-determined to choose between good and evil. Kant believes that the general principles of law and morality cannot be based on empirical human nature, but must be incorporated into the "conceptual" or "ontological" world, and built on a priori "should" world based on rational commands.

    2. Why does the traditional Chinese society's economic and political structure need "Ritual"?

    Compared with the law, ritual has three strengths and advantages, which can prevent trouble, guide people to kindness, and maintain the harmony of social order. Governing the world with ritual can establish a good social order, make people separate, fulfill their respective responsibilities, and avoid social chaos and contradictions.

    The defect of ritual is that when people do not abide by the norms of etiquette, they cannot take coercive measures to punish them. Therefore, in the long-term historical evolution, the combination of ritual and law has formed a governance method that combines ritual and law.

    In a word, governing the world with courtesy is one of the important ways of social governance in ancient China, which is rooted in Confucianism. The advantage of ritual is that it can establish a good social order and avoid social chaos and contradictions. However, the defect of ritual is that it cannot force people to abide by ritual norms. Therefore, in the long-term historical evolution, the combination of ritual and law has formed a governance method that combines ritual and law.

    3.Maritime Countries and Continental Countries

    The Greeks lived ina maritime country and maintained their prosperity thought commerce.

    They were primarily merchants. And what merchants have to deal with first are the abstract numbers used in their commercial accounts, and only then with concrete things that may have immediately apprehended through these numbers.Such numbers are what Northrop called concepts by postulation. Hence Greek philosopher s likewise took the concept by postulation as their starting point.They developed mathematics and mathematical reasoning. That is why they had epistemological problem and why their language was so articulate. They are accustomed to change and are not afraid of novelty.

    Continental Countries

    This is the view of one who admire the natural and condemns the artificial. The way of life of the farmers is to follow nature. They admire nature and condemn the artificial, and in their primitivity and innocent, they are easily made content.

    4. Why did the Hellenistic tradition in Western culture give rise to metaphysics and monotheism?

    The ancient Greeks strongly focused on political democracy and freedom of thought, firmly believed in human values and dignity, and did not succumb to any secular or religious authority. With the attitude of rationalism and secularism and adhering to the spirit of free exploration, positive thinking and continuous innovation, they have brought free, rational and democratic humanistic ideas, optimistic and enterprising attitude towards life and healthy and simple aesthetic concepts to the Western world.

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  • 龙蒙蒙 11-16

    The most basic meaning of freedom is the absence of restrictions or obstacles, or the absence of restrictions or obstacles. People seek freedom because they feel an uncomfortable constraint, but if you don't feel that constraint, then you don't have a desire for freedom and behavior. Therefore, the sense of constraint is a prerequisite for freedom.

     

    In ancient Chinese society, the mode of "rule of etiquette and law together" emphasizes the importance of moral education and moral restraint while governing the country by law, and tries to combine the two.

     

    When philosophy, as a reflection on knowledge, became a form of knowledge in ancient Greece, because the formed philosophy was determined by its mode of thinking, it was the formal understanding of existence for existence - the purpose of seeking the objective basic existence independent of man led to the continuous in-depth study of the form of existence. This idea of the formalization of existence has always promoted the study of Western philosophy until the contemporary Western philosophy. The formalization of existence must also distinguish spirit from it as an independent form, which is not clear dualism implied in Aristotle, after realizing the Renaissance's negation of God and thus making Descartes clearly separate existence from thinking, The relationship between existence and thinking is the goal pursued by Western philosophers for thousands of years in order to discover the form of existence and thinking and try to make them the same.

    When the Renaissance produced the philosophy of rationalism and empiricism, metaphysics began to be used as a philosophical form to distinguish science. From then on, philosophy separated from the encyclopedic philosophy of ancient Greece and became metaphysics, and physics separated from this encyclopedic philosophy and became natural science - with the continuous formalization of the philosophy of the formalization of existence making the form of natural science independent from philosophy. When natural science continues to progress, and when natural science transforms the technical means of conducting physical experiments into social productive forces with the success of Newtonian physics system, then the abundant material benefits brought by the liberation of productive forces give rise to the idea of scientialism, which on the one hand opposes the metaphysical mode of thinking from the value of science. On the other hand, the ontological difficulty of formal self-regulation of being for being makes metaphysics difficult. From then on, the philosophical trend of rejection of metaphysics occurred continuously in the history of philosophy, and the resulting metaphysical form was constantly changed, as we can see, Descartes -- Bacon opposed Aristotle's ontological metaphysics and created metaphysics. On the basis of Kant's criticism of understanding, Hegel opposed intellectualist metaphysics and created dialectic metaphysics. Contemporary scientific materialism and positivism oppose all metaphysics. This shows that metaphysics is constantly being replaced by new forms of metaphysics, and old metaphysics are being replaced by new metaphysics, and they are changing the form of metaphysics, but they cannot change their own metaphysical nature. The history of western philosophy shows that when it is possible to understand the existence of the world in a positive way, the difference between the positive content and the positive form leads to the formalization of existence, and the formalization of existence leads Aristotle to make the corresponding formal distinction of philosophy, and produces the metaphysical philosophical form, that is, the metaphysical Western philosophical tradition that formalizes existence.

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    • 彭雯 11-25
      According to Kant, true freedom is considered to mean that man has the free will to act according to his own legislation without being bound by the law of nature in the sense of moral real money, and that man's reason establishes the inevitable laws of nature in the aspect of objects, but therefore limits his own freedom. In real money, the same reason of man is able not to be bound by the laws of nature, but to act according to its own consistent universal law of free will. 2.Ritual play a crucial role in traditional Chinese law. Rites are the spiritual core of law, and they cannot be separated. Under the same goal of maintaining feudal autocratic rule, they play their respective roles and complement each other. As a symbol of Chinese traditional culture, ritual has been deeply rooted in the spiritual world of Chinese people, and has gained universal recognition. Its status and function even transcend the law and become the supreme existence. "Ritual" is actually a code of conduct generated by the interaction between people, or a social rule. The system itself, which is reached voluntarily and observed voluntarily through the interaction between people, is said to be efficient by institutional economics. Why is that? It's simple: an agreed result is a good result. 3. 1, Marine countries, Marine countries in a broad sense as long as adjacent to the sea are counted, generally referring to the United Kingdom, the Netherlands, Japan and Japan and the United States, China is also a Marine country. 2, continental countries, continental countries are landlocked countries, the territory does not include the sea, France, Germany and Russia are continental countries. 4. From the historical process of metaphysics development, there are actually three kinds of metaphysics: universal ontology, category ontology and meaning ontology. Greek philosophy originated from the search for "the universality of the world" (the original).
    • 6班毕诗悦 12-26
      In the eyes of Confucius, "freedom" is a natural right of human beings. This freedom does not mean absolute freedom of human beings, but limited freedom, that is, individuals can fully show their abilities and talents, but at the same time, they need to consider the impact of individual behavior on society, and cannot cause harm to society for their own freedom. Confucius believed that social order is based on individual self-discipline, and only individuals who understand the importance of observing etiquette from the bottom of their hearts can maintain harmony and stability in the whole society. The reason why the economic and political structure of traditional Chinese society needs "Li" is that li is the cornerstone of civilized society, which can regulate people's behavior and speech and maintain social harmony and stability. According to Confucius, etiquette is a kind of habit, which is taught through long-term practice and experience, which can make people's behavior reasonable, in line with justice and human ethics, and at the same time can strengthen people's moral concepts and social responsibility. Etiquette is also a kind of thought, which contains the values of respect for others, respect for the elderly, tolerance, etc., reflecting the cultural spirit and moral outlook of a society. Helo tradition refers to the cultural and ideological tradition of the city-state period of ancient Greece, which emphasizes aesthetic and moral principles and has humanistic characteristics. The emergence of metaphysics and monotheism in Western culture is closely related to the Helo tradition. With the exploration and understanding of the world, human beings have been thinking deeply about the existence mode and nature beyond the natural phenomena. Metaphysics, as a philosophical system, attempts to explore the essence and truth behind reality. Monotheism is based on the religions of the ancient Near East, and its believers believe that there is only one supreme God. This religious concept reflects the universal belief and worship of the universe. These ideas were developed in Helo culture, forming a distinct philosophical and religious tradition.
  • 7班任胜娟 11-16

    Confucius believed that etiquette is the cornerstone of maintaining social order and harmony. People should follow certain etiquette norms to handle interpersonal relationships in order to achieve the goal of harmonious coexistence. Everyone lives and acts together in a state. The state is conceived of in terms of the family. And in this family, there is no moral reason why one should be more important than, or superior to,another. Li or rituals organize and structure social and personal behaviors in order that everyone has the same right to seek his desire. Rituals allows people to avoid acting as the slaves of external constraints and acting to natural necessities and conflicts. Under a harmonious society standardized by the rituals, people can obey his own thirst, act autonomously and act according to a law that he gives to himself, that is to say, he can act freely.
     

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  • 7班朱金雪 11-16

    We cannot draw the conclusion that Confucius is in line with inhumanity. There three reasons.

    Firstly, freedom is not about doing whatever you want, but to act autonomously according to a law that you give yourself, which is also Kant’s conception of freedom. So organized social and individual behaviors are not in conflict with the spirit of freedom; on the contrary, free action must take place in an orderly manner within the organization of society.

    Secondly, ancient Chinese closed and scattered agricultural economy that formed by Chinese special geographical conditions, is economic source of the conservative habit of the public, and most of agricultural activities was based on the family unit. Besides, the political system of ancient China is a relatively stable political system. Owning to the characteristics of ancient Chinese economic and political structure, rituals is really needed to maintain social stability and economic development.

    Thirdly, the Hellenistic tradition in Western culture spurred contemplation beyond the material world, fostering the development of metaphysics. At the time of the rise of monotheism, the society was in the stage of the disintegration of primitive society, the formation of class society, the contradictions between nobility and commoners in clan society and between slave owners and slaves after entering class society were very sharp. Therefore, the essence of metaphysics and the rise of the monotheism is to maintain the unity of society and to emphasize the universe's order and unity.

    In short, although Li is about organizing and structuring social and personal behaviors, social unity and stability is necessity for people to act freely, so Confucius is not in line with inhumanity, but actually is humanity.

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  • 11班任妍妍 11-16

    1. What is "Freedom"? (on Kant's idea of Justice)

    Kant believed that the real freedom refers to the free will of a person to act according to his own legislation, without being bound by natural laws in the sense of morality and money. Human rationality establishes the necessary laws of nature in terms of objects, but also limits their freedom as a result. In true currency, the same rationality of humans can be free from the constraints of natural laws, but act according to their consistent and universal laws of free will.

    2. Why does the traditional Chinese society's economic and political structure need "Ritual"?

    Rituals play a crucial role in traditional Chinese law. Ritual is the spiritual core of law and is inseparable. Under the common goal of maintaining feudal autocratic rule, they each performed their respective functions and complemented each other. As a symbol of traditional Chinese culture, ritual has been deeply rooted in the spiritual world of Chinese people and has been widely recognized. Its status and function are even beyond the law, becoming the supreme existence.

    "Ritual" is actually a code of conduct generated by human interaction, or a social rule. Institutional economics believes that the system itself is voluntarily achieved and voluntarily observed through the interaction between people, and it is effective. Why? It's simple: an agreed result is a good result.

    3. Maritime Countries and Continental Countries

    The difference between maritime and continental countries is based on geographical and economic factors. The economies of maritime countries surrounded by the sea are often influenced by maritime activities such as trade, fishing, and navigation, while landlocked continental countries place greater emphasis on agriculture.

    4. Why did the Hellenistic tradition in Western culture give rise to metaphysics and monotheism?

    The Hellenistic tradition in Western culture stimulated the thinking beyond the material world and promoted the development of metaphysics. This philosophical trend leads individuals to go beyond sensory experience and seek a higher truth. At the same time, religious beliefs in the Hellenistic tradition laid the foundation for monotheism, focusing on a single god and emphasizing the order and unity of the universe.

    5.Can we draw the conclusion that Confucius is in line with inhumanity (as suggested by Bertrand Russel on page 54)?  

    No,Russell's view that "Confucius is in line with inhumanity" is narrow and limited. This is a misunderstanding and an oversimplification of Confucian philosophy. Confucius did emphasize the importance of Li and social structure, but not at the expense of humanity or free will.

    First of all, we must understand the Confucian thought of Li. In the concept of Confucius, Li not only a kind of form, but also a kind of norms and guidance for human emotions and behaviors. He believes that through the cultivation of Li, people can better control their desires and emotions, and achieve inner peace and social harmony.

    Secondly, we should realize that Confucius' thought of Li or ritual is not to suppress people's emotions and desires, but to guide people to express and release their emotions correctly. In Confucius' thought, human emotions and desires are natural, but only through correct guidance and regulation can they be reasonably expressed and released in society.

    Finally, we should understand the relationship between Confucius' thoughts of Li and individual freedom and spirit. In Confucius' concept, individual freedom and spirit are not suppressed or ignored, but better realized through the cultivation of Li. He believes that only when people can properly control their emotions and desires can they truly realize their self-worth and free spirit.

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  • 李花香 11-17

    What is free ?

    We do can’t free from instinct, but we can not blindly obey nature, becoming the slave of instinct and desire. Human beings own national capacity, and it is this capacity that distinguishes us from animals. Therefore, freedom is not that we can do whatever we want, and at the same time, freedom is not that we can do anything without any obstacles. According to kant, freedom is the opposite of necessity, that is to say, freedom is that people can act according to their own will but only be affected by physiological needs.

    Why does the economic and political structure of traditional Chinese society require "etiquette"?

    The economic and political structure of traditional Chinese society demands "etiquette" from multiple aspects.

    Firstly, 'etiquette' is seen as a mechanism for maintaining social order. In ancient China, social hierarchy and identity differences were the core of economic and political structure. The concept of 'etiquette' establishes a set of behavioral norms and communication norms that help maintain social order and avoid conflicts and chaos caused by identity differences.

    Secondly, 'etiquette' also played an important role in the economic activities of ancient China. Business activities are usually carried out in certain social relationships, and 'etiquette' specifies how people should treat each other in these relationships. By adhering to 'etiquette', people can establish trust and good relationships, thereby promoting smooth business transactions.

    Why did the Hiro tradition in Western culture give birth to metaphysics and monotheism?

    The Hiro tradition emphasizes curiosity and thirst for knowledge about unknown things, pursuing knowledge and wisdom. In the Hiro tradition, people not only pay attention to the surface phenomena of things, but also try to understand the essence and meaning behind them. This exploration transcends sensory experience and involves more abstract and profound concepts, thus forming the ideological foundation of metaphysics.

    In addition, in ancient Greek philosophy, the importance of language gradually became prominent, and philosophers began to explore the world and truth through language. This focus on language has promoted the development of conceptual analysis and logical reasoning, providing important thinking tools for metaphysics.

    As for the emergence of monotheism. Firstly, the Hiro tradition emphasizes the exploration of mystery and supernatural, which provided soil for early monotheistic beliefs. In early Christianity and other monotheistic religions, mysticism and supernatural elements were important components. Secondly, the pursuit of wisdom and truth in the Heroic tradition also provides support for the faith of monotheism.

    Based on the above three questions, I believe that we should not consider 'etiquette' as inhumane just because it  constrains human instincts in certain situations. Because instincts are only a part of a person, completely obeying them can make us slaves to our instincts. Implementing 'etiquette' is not depriving people of their freedom, because freedom is not living as freely as animals do. Freedom is based on a certain rationality, and 'etiquette' is a part of human rational capacity. Finally, 'etiquette' has a promoting effect on the development of human civilization and is beneficial to humanity rather than anti human.

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  • 12班聂焕霜 11-17

    What is "Freedom"? (on Kant's idea of Justice)

    Kant's idea of justice is based on the concept of freedom, which he defines as the ability to act according to one's own will, without external coercion or interference. In this sense, freedom is the foundation of justice, as it allows individuals to make their own choices and be responsible for their actions.

    2. Why does the traditional Chinese society's economic and political structure need "Ritual"?

    Social Order and Stability: Rituals provided a framework for maintaining social order and harmony within the community. 

    Legitimizing Authority: Rituals were used to legitimize the authority of rulers and government officials.

    Moral and Ethical Guidance: Rituals were deeply intertwined with Confucian ethics, emphasizing virtues such as filial piety, respect for elders, and social responsibility.

    Economic Exchange: Rituals also played a role in economic transactions and trade. 

    3.Maritime Countries and Continental Countries

    The terms "maritime countries" and "continental countries" are often used to categorize nations based on their geographical characteristics and their relationship with bodies of water.

    Maritime Countries: Maritime countries are those that have a significant coastline and rely on the sea for trade, transportation, and often defense. These nations typically have a strong maritime tradition and may have a large portion of their population living in coastal areas. Maritime countries often have a strong emphasis on naval power, fishing, and maritime trade. Examples of maritime countries include Japan, the United Kingdom, Indonesia, and Norway.

    Continental Countries: Continental countries, on the other hand, are those that are geographically dominated by landmasses and have limited access to the sea. These nations often have a greater emphasis on land-based trade and transportation, and their economies and cultures may be more influenced by their immediate neighbors rather than by maritime influences. Examples of continental countries include Russia, China, Brazil, and Germany.

    4. Why did the Hellenistic tradition in Western culture give rise to metaphysics and monotheism?

    the Hellenistic tradition in Western culture provided the intellectual, cultural, and religious context that gave rise to metaphysical inquiry and the development of monotheistic beliefs, laying the foundation for the evolution of Western philosophical and theological thought.

    5.Can we draw the conclusion that Confucius is in line with inhumanity (as suggested by Bertrand Russel on page 54)?  

    No, we cannot draw the conclusion that Confucius is in line with inhumanity as suggested by Bertrand Russel based solely on the belief that Li or rituals conflict with human emotional instinct and free spirit. While it is true that Confucius emphasized the importance of Li and social structure, this was not at the expense of humanity or free will.

     

    Confucius believed that Li was important in promoting social harmony and respect for others, but also emphasized the importance of compassion, empathy, and individual expression. In fact, he stated that one must first develop oneself before being able to properly engage with society and Li.

     

    Furthermore, Russell’s assessment of Confucianism as inhuman can be considered narrow and limited. Confucian thought and philosophy have evolved over time, and there is no singular, monolithic interpretation of Confucianism.

     

    Overall, it is important to approach Confucianism and its concepts of Li and humanity with an open mind and nuanced understanding, rather than making sweeping conclusions based on limited perspectives.

     

     Confucius is not inhumane. If we only focus on its aspect of suppressing human emotions and serving social order, we will get a wrong understanding. On the contrary, Confucius' Confucian ideology is jointly dependent on the "private" nature of human nature and the "public" nature of the country. On the one hand, it emphasizes family harmony and brotherhood, and on the other hand, it emphasizes loyalty to the country and the monarch, and compassion for the people. At the same time, Confucianism also embodies personal aspirations, guiding people on the right path through various aspects of cultivation and discipline. The Confucian concept of "propriety" does indeed constrain people in certain aspects, but for a country, "propriety" is order. How can people survive in a country without order? So we cannot equate Confucius' Confucianism with the concept of human nature.

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  • 3班田锋颖 11-17

    Confucius's emphasis on Li, or rituals, aims to organize and structure social and personal behaviors, providing a framework for harmonious relationships. This doesn't necessarily conflict with human emotional instinct or free spirit; rather, Confucius sought to cultivate virtuous conduct. "Freedom," in this context, could be seen as the ethical freedom to act in accordance with moral principles. Kant's idea of justice, which prioritizes moral duty and universal principles, aligns with Confucius's emphasis on ethical behavior.

    The economic and political structure of traditional Chinese society needed Li to maintain social order and stability. Confucian principles, including the observance of rituals, were seen as crucial for a well-ordered society. Li provided a framework for individuals to fulfill their roles and responsibilities, contributing to a harmonious social fabric. In this perspective, the emphasis on Li can be viewed as a means to ensure justice and societal cohesion in Confucian thought.

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  • Chenchengsiu 11-17

    Self-discipline is sometimes a form of prudence. Everything should start with yourself, be self-disciplined, restrict yourself, always carry out self-restraint and self-management, and review yourself harshly with your own eyes. Do a man in advance, right people first right yourself. Restraining yourself does not mean going against people's wishes, but rather making yourself better on the basis of maintaining your personality. This practice not only improves the ability of self, but also plays a role in social harmony and interpersonal harmony. The harmonious interpersonal relationship can in turn act on itself and promote the development of individuals. Therefore, self-discipline and observance of etiquette are of great benefit to oneself, to others, and to society. Confucius' etiquette thought is not inhuman.

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  • 万蓝雨 11-17

    I don't agree with the opinion that Li and inhumanity are the same. Freedom can only be called true freedom if it is constrained. Because without constraints, people can do whatever they want, then the world will fall into chaos and there will be no freedom. In the same way, the same is true of Li. Only under the rules of Li can we have a harmonious and stable society, and only then can we have true freedom and humanity.

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  • 程兵 11-17

     

    No, we cannot draw the conclusion that Confucius is in line with inhumanity based on the belief that Li or rituals conflict with human emotional instinct and free spirit. Confucius emphasized the importance of Li as a way to cultivate proper conduct, social harmony, and moral character. While some may Li as rigid and restrictive, Confucius intended for its practice to guide individuals towards benevolence, compassion, and ethical behavior. Confucius believed that by adhering to Li, individuals could create a harmonious society and develop their moral character. Therefore, it incorrect to view Confucius as being aligned with inhumanity merely based on the perceived conflict between Li and human emotions or free spirit.

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  • 7班文鑫渝 11-17

    While some would argue that Confucius' emphasis on ritual and social structure could be seen as in conflict with human emotions and the spirit of freedom, I would argue that Confucius was still humane. Confucius believed that ritual and social order were essential to maintaining social harmony. Crucially, Confucius also stressed the importance of empathy, kindness, and cultivating inner virtue. The suggestion that Confucius conforms to inhumanity may be a misunderstanding of Confucian philosophy. Confucius' teachings focus on improving individuals and society through ethical behavior, self-cultivation, and moral principles. While rituals and social structures are important in Confucianism, they are not intended to suppress human emotions or free spirits, but rather to guide individuals' interactions with others. Thus, Confucius' teachings aim to balance social order and individual freedom, not to promote inhumanity.

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  • 程兵 11-17

    No, we cannot draw the conclusion that Confucius is in line with inhumanity based on the belief that Li or rituals conflict with human emotional instinct and free spirit. Confucius emphasized the importance of Li as a way to cultivate proper conduct, social harmony, and moral character. While some may Li as rigid and restrictive, Confucius intended for its practice to guide individuals towards benevolence, compassion, and ethical behavior. Confucius believed that by adhering to Li, individuals could create a harmonious society and develop their moral character. Therefore, it incorrect to view Confucius as being aligned with inhumanity merely based on the perceived conflict between Li and human emotions or free spirit.

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  • 3班陈已英 11-17

    Confucianism emphasis on the importance of human politeness does not suppress human nature and free spirit, but appropriately constrain them. If everyone has the ability to do whatever he wants with his complete free spirit, China will also become what Russell described: anyone has endless desires, and society will fall into instability. Therefore, society cannot reach a state of absolute rationality and needs to be restrained. And what Russel holds in this  is incorrect.

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  • No, we cannot say that Confucius is in line with inhumanity as suggested by Russel.

    It is true that Confucius's idea of Li was designed to regulate human behavior, but this does not mean that it conflicts with human emotional instinct and free spirit.

    If the idea of Li is inhumane, why does traditional Chinese society advocate the it so much? Because Confucius emphasized that human behavior should conform to the norms of etiquette, so as to achieve a harmonious social order. At the same time, he emphasized the importance of human emotions and free will.

    According to Kant ,the real freedom means the free will of a person to act according to his own nature, without being bound by natural laws in the sense of morality. However,human society establishes the necessary laws of nature in terms of objects, but also limits their freedom as a result. But the humans need to act according to the consistent and universal laws of free will.

    Confucius's idea of Li is not to limit people's emotions and free will, but to guide people to express these emotions and wills in the right way. He believed that human emotions and free spirit are part of human nature, and Li is a way to regulate these emotions and wills.

    Therefore, we cannot simply say that Confucius's idea of Li is inhuman. Rather, it aims to lead people to better understand and express their emotions and free spirit, so as to achieve a harmonious social order.

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  • 欧阳翠花 11-17

    The content of Confucius's "ceremony" refers to the social rank order, it is the etiquette a way that people should follow when getting along with each other. A society can't be without rules and order, and people can't be without communication etiquette, Ceremony" is not only crucial to the development of ancient society, but also plays an irreplaceable core role in thespiritual construction of most Chinese.In fact, the "ceremony" recognized in ancient society isactually a kind of boundary, responsibility and education in addition to the traditional behavioral norms. The meaningof"Li" is not immediately revealed or recognized after the appearance of "Li". But in the long historical years, after continuous improvement, innovation and perfection, the customary etiquette was finally formed.

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  • 9班_刘一犇 11-17

         No, we cannot. We cannot use Western values to evaluate our Chinese thinking. 

         Chinese and Western civilizations have different origins, different development, and different progress of civilization. Therefore, different things cannot be judged by the same set of criteria.

         China's social system can be called the family state, because in this social system the state is conceived in terms of the family. In a city-state, social organization is not automatic, because among townspeople of the same class, there is no moral reason why one person should be more important or superior to another. But in the family state, social organization is automatic and hierarchical, because the authority of the father in the family is naturally higher than that of the son. Unlike maritime civilizations, which thrive on the sea, continental civilizations are more resistant to change and want to maintain the status quo. Chinese civilization does not encourage and incentivize the creation of inventions; on the contrary, these inventions and discoveries are opposed and criticized.

        The origin of Western civilization is closely related to the Mediterranean region, which is a major transportation route and various cultures interact through the sea. This exchange led to the blending of knowledge, beliefs and cultures. In this cross-cultural communication, people gradually formed a common understanding of the universe and mysterious forces. The rise and expansion of the Roman Empire further contributed to the development of monotheism. With the incorporation of different regions into the Roman Empire, various belief systems interacted and contributed to a general religious consensus.

        In Kant's opinion, freedom means to opposite the natural necessity. To act freely means to act accordingto a law one gives to himself. Freedom as autonomy is an especially strigent idea that Kant insist on. While in Chinese traditional vaule. The heteronomy is the most important things, which is quite different from that of the western values.

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  • 2班张玉玲 11-17

    It is a wrong conclusion.Rite is a constraint on people and also helps them build a better society. If people only follow their own inclinations, it is a form of harm to others. Freedom within the moral limits is truly freedom.

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  • We can't draw such a conclusion. Actually, Li doesn't conflict with human emotional instinct and free spirit. 

    According to Kant's, freedom is the foundation of justice. Freedom is relative, not absolute, and absolute freedom does not exist.

    Society needs order. China is a continental country, also called family sate, in which the family is the foundation of the country.Therefore, the social organization is automatic and hierarchic. In ancient China, Confucianism was used to bind people's behavior, whereas in the West, law was used to bind people's behavior. We cannot regard the force of law as inhumanity, and thus we cannot regard Li as inhumanity.

    The heart of ritual is the human, and even if it is true that Li is used to organize and structure society and personal behavior, it is still human-based ritual. Confucius placed significant emphasis on empathy and the recognition of others' emotions, thereby acknowledging the importance of emotional instincts and the free expression of feelings. What's more, Li seeks to establish a balance between personal desires and societal well-being, encouraging individuals to act virtuously. 

    Therefore, Bertrand Russel's conclusion isn't proper.

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  • 姜堉涵 11-17

    It would be wrong to draw that conclusion. According to Kant, freedom is not about doing what you want and getting what you want. On the contrary, freedom is the opposite of necessity. Top act freely is to act according to a law given by oneself and to choose the end itself for its own sake. Unlimited freedom can lead to chaos in the social order. Etiquette is a laissez-faire constraint on people, constituting the upper and lower order and the left and right politeness. Etiquette is the moral code of all members of society, and it is the behavior standard and activity principle of all members of society. The function of rites is to promote and harmonize. In the social governance system, etiquette requires the improvement of individual moral cultivation and the realization of self-value, and also requires the realization of harmony in all aspects of society. Only in a harmonious and orderly society, individual freedom can be realized, so rites are very humanized.

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  • 21级8班谭顺阳 11-17

    Confucianism has certain limitations, and self-denial is contrary to people's natural emotions to a certain extent, requiring people to restrain their emotions and desires to achieve the requirements of "rites". However, Confucianism also advocates "benevolence", and benevolence is the core idea of Confucianism. Confucianism advocates three levels of benevolence: family-based love, society-based love, and cosmic love, and the love within these three systems are interrelated and have a common philosophical basis, that is, Confucianism's idea of "中庸" , which is also the embodiment of humanity. Therefore, we should not use some certain concepts in Confucianism which do not conform to nowadays ideology to criticize Confucianism against the humanity, but should pay attention to its more core inner meaning and pursuit, which is aligned with humanity.

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  • I don't agree with the opinion that Confucius' Li is in line with inhumanity. 

    On the one hand, we need to figure out the multiple meanings of "Li". "Li" can not only be understood as "ceremony" or "etiquette", but also be defined as "sincerity", which means a "unification" of our behaviour and heart. Therefore, the "essence" of Li lies not in the "form", but in our "heart". To understand Li better, we can not merely stay on the forms of those ceremonies, but more importantly, we should make our heart and feelings conform to the requirements of "Li".

    On the other hand, we need to clear up some misconceptions about the word, "freedom".
    Actually, "freedom" is based on order and rules. Because without those constraints, people can do whatever they want, then the world will fall into chaos, not to mention the "freedom" of individuals. So, the order of society precedes the freedom of individuals. Only under the rules of Li can we have a harmonious and stable society, and only then can we have true freedom and humanity.

    All in all, Confucius' "Li", which highlights the "people-oriented" ideology, doesn't mean to hide the nature of "humanity", but serves as a natural expression of human emotions.

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